The coastal zone is a valuable resource which provides a diversity of benefits. The difficulties facing the coastal zone tend to fall into three categories: (1) Pressure and conflict on resources. The beach residence value, an indicator of land use pressure, implies that, of the Australian states, New South Wales' coastal zone is under the greatest pressure. Associated with population is development pressure. Many forms of development are not compatible, hence conflicts of interest can arise. (2) The dynamic nature of the coast. That is, the physical and biological aspects of the coastal zone are in a state of flux. The dynamics make predictions for management controversial. (3) Organisational problems. The lack of direction, lack of coordination and fragmentation of management leads to ad hoc management of this valuable resource. This evaluation identified and confirmed the relevance of coastal issues which led to the enactment of the Coastal Protection Act, 1979. The coastal issues investigated were: coastal erosion and development; coastal erosion and protection works; coastal land degradation; degradation of coastal habitats, fish and wildlife resources; recreation opportunities; pollution; and increasing population pressure and competition betweeen alternative uses. The administrative arrangements for management of the issues were investigated. A broad range of coastal issues were evaluated using a mix of indicators with standards of comparison to measure progress. Management tools, policies and strategies used to address the issues were investigated. Finally prescriptions to further address the issues were made as was how to implement the prescriptions. The evaluation noted: increasing coastal population and development pressure; numerous examples of conflicts of interest; complex and often bewildering administrative arrangements for coastal zone management; widely varying levels of performance by agencies; and a lack of direction and co-ordination from State authorities. The principal conclusion was that strategic planning needed to be undertaken through a lead coastal agency. The lead agency should clarify and improve direction, co-ordination and co-operation in coastal management. This should improve the effectiveness of management and reduce the incidence and duration of conflict among the different and competing coastal values. This evaluation of the effectiveness of coastal management, at a State level, should not only assist New South Wales but also other States in the management of this valuable resource.

Nature-based solutions (NBS) are increasingly popular infrastructure protection options, particularly in coastal engineering. These systems have shown the ability to provide similar coastal protection services to traditional hard schemes while providing other ecological and economic benefits, and a capacity to adapt to changing contexts. One prominent example of coastal NBS are saltmarshes: fields of flexible or semi-flexible vegetation, which have been found to significantly reduce damage to local communities under daily and storm conditions. Scientific study of these complex, multi-faceted structures is growing in volume, but there remain many knowledge gaps in the field. Numerical modelling is a powerful tool for investigating both large- and small-scale behaviours of saltmarshes. Numerical models provide a controlled, repeatable, and easily variable method for testing how a marsh impacts local hydrodynamic climates and how incident flow or wave conditions affect the behaviour of their constitutive vegetation. Small-scale plant behaviour is the focus of this thesis. Literature on the subject has been chiefly limited to greatly simplified vegetation modelling, reducing plants' behaviour to that of straightforward rigid cylinders. While this can be effective, it requires significant calibration to measured data and may not provide an accurate picture of the intricate flow dynamics surrounding an individual plant, let alone a full marsh system. Recently, numerical models capable of modelling flexible structures have been developed and used by researchers. However, studies applying these tools have focussed on replicating the more significant hydrodynamic effects of marshes, such as mixing or wave attenuation. By doing so, the calibration requirements of the rigid-type models remain, and the way the plants themselves are modelled loses physical meaning beyond their hydrodynamic impacts. The work presented in this thesis aims to expand on current flexible plant modelling research by evaluating a new numerical modelling tool in the open-source software REEF3D for replicating in situ saltmarsh plant behaviour in terms of drag force and motion response to hydrodynamic forcing. Three experimental programs were designed and conducted in order to thoroughly evaluate both aspects of the model. The first, based on a flume study performed by Paul et al. (2016), tested the drag force response to regular wave action. The second, based on the work of Tschisgale & Fröhlich (2020), further investigated the drag force response using closed- and open-channel flow, as well as solitary waves. The third, based on a flume study performed with live vegetation by Markov et al. (2023), evaluated the accuracy of the motion response to irregular waves. Consistent through all three programs was an overestimation of the examined behaviour and, in the third case, persistent model breakdown. These results demonstrate that, as tested, the evaluated tool is unsuitable for this purpose. It is suggested that this is due to the foundational assumptions of the model, namely that the material of the flexible structure is of a linearly viscoelastic type, whereas a nonlinear elastic material would be more appropriate for this application. These results highlight the difficulty of numerically modelling these systems and the need for further research developing and applying practical modelling tools for marshes.

O aquecimento global e conseqüente elevação do nível médio do mar constituem-se num desafio para a manutenção e o projeto das estruturas marítimas nas próximas décadas. Tanto as mudanças climáticas globais, quanto o fato das tempestades extremas estarem sofrendo substanciais alterações, têm profundas conseqüências para a sociedade, bem como para o meio ambiente. O trabalho teve como objetivo apresentar e discutir esses aspectos climáticos e analisar os paradigmas para os projetos de obras marítimas, como as defesas costeiras e obras de estabilização para manter ou reconstruir os sistemas naturais (falésias, dunas, terras úmidas, praias), ou para proteger as construções e infra-estruturas costeiras (áreas urbanas, acessos de ligação, rodovias). Para isso, analisou-se o estudo de caso sobre a ocorrência de erosão costeira na Praia de Massaguaçu, cidade de Caraguatatuba no Estado de São Paulo, avaliando os projetos e obras realizados para o local, considerando as recomendações das políticas públicas existentes em nível internacional. Dessa forma, o trabalho foi concluído, apresentando as possíveis soluções para o problema de erosão ocorrido em uma região costeira, face à elevação relativa do nível médio do mar. / Global warming and the consequent increase of the mean sea level rise will be a challenge to the maintenance and development of offshore structures in the coming decades. Both global climate change and the fact that the extreme storms are experiencing substantial changes have profound consequences for the society and the environment. The study aimed to present and discuss these issues and analyze the climatic paradigms for offshore projects such as coastal defenses and the stabilization works to maintain or rebuild the natural systems (cliffs, dunes, wetland, beaches), or to protect buildings and coastal infrastructure (urban areas, access for connections, roads). To this end, it was analyzed the case study on the occurrence of coastal erosion on the beach of Massaguaçu, Caraguatatuba city in São Paulo State, the projects and works undertaken for the site were evaluated, considering the recommendations of the existing policies at the international level. Thus, the study was concluded, with the possible solutions to the problem of erosion occurred in a coastal region, given the increase on the mean sea level rise.

O aquecimento global e conseqüente elevação do nível médio do mar constituem-se num desafio para a manutenção e o projeto das estruturas marítimas nas próximas décadas. Tanto as mudanças climáticas globais, quanto o fato das tempestades extremas estarem sofrendo substanciais alterações, têm profundas conseqüências para a sociedade, bem como para o meio ambiente. O trabalho teve como objetivo apresentar e discutir esses aspectos climáticos e analisar os paradigmas para os projetos de obras marítimas, como as defesas costeiras e obras de estabilização para manter ou reconstruir os sistemas naturais (falésias, dunas, terras úmidas, praias), ou para proteger as construções e infra-estruturas costeiras (áreas urbanas, acessos de ligação, rodovias). Para isso, analisou-se o estudo de caso sobre a ocorrência de erosão costeira na Praia de Massaguaçu, cidade de Caraguatatuba no Estado de São Paulo, avaliando os projetos e obras realizados para o local, considerando as recomendações das políticas públicas existentes em nível internacional. Dessa forma, o trabalho foi concluído, apresentando as possíveis soluções para o problema de erosão ocorrido em uma região costeira, face à elevação relativa do nível médio do mar. / Global warming and the consequent increase of the mean sea level rise will be a challenge to the maintenance and development of offshore structures in the coming decades. Both global climate change and the fact that the extreme storms are experiencing substantial changes have profound consequences for the society and the environment. The study aimed to present and discuss these issues and analyze the climatic paradigms for offshore projects such as coastal defenses and the stabilization works to maintain or rebuild the natural systems (cliffs, dunes, wetland, beaches), or to protect buildings and coastal infrastructure (urban areas, access for connections, roads). To this end, it was analyzed the case study on the occurrence of coastal erosion on the beach of Massaguaçu, Caraguatatuba city in São Paulo State, the projects and works undertaken for the site were evaluated, considering the recommendations of the existing policies at the international level. Thus, the study was concluded, with the possible solutions to the problem of erosion occurred in a coastal region, given the increase on the mean sea level rise.

>Coastal and marine resources have been in global decline the past three decades. Research suggests that the decline is due to an undervaluation of ecosystem services. The Natural Capital Project (Natcap) has developed models to assess the impact of human activities on the sustained delivery of ecosystem services within terrestrial and marine environments. With the use of Natcap models, this case study (located at Cox Bay, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada), examined coastal protection services provided by nearshore habitats, and provides an economic valuation of these services. The model results indicate that nearshore habitats do play a role in reducing coastal vulnerability and coastal erosion, with an "avoided damages" cost of $1 million. Sand dunes provided the greatest amount of coastal protection, whereas seagrasses were found to have a negligible effect. These outcomes can inform policy and decision makers about trade-offs regarding habitat protection, coastal development and climate change adaptation.

Oyster reefs provide valuable ecosystemservices that contribute to coastal resilience. Unfortunately, many reefs have been degraded or removed completely, and there are increased efforts to restore oysters in many coastal areas. In particular, much attention has recently been given to the restoration of shellfish reefs along eroding shorelines to reduce erosion. Such fringing reef approaches, however, often lack empirical data to identify locations where reefs are most effective in reducing marsh erosion, or fully take into account habitat suitability. Using monitoring data from 5 separate fringing reef projects across coastal Louisiana, we quantify shoreline exposure (fetch + wind direction + wind speed) and reef impacts on shoreline retreat. Our results indicate that fringing oyster reefs have a higher impact on shoreline retreat at higher exposure shorelines. At higher exposures, fringing reefs reduced marsh edge erosion an average of 1.0 m y-1. Using these data, we identify ranges of shoreline exposure values where oyster reefs are most effective at reducing marsh edge erosion and apply this knowledge to a case study within one Louisiana estuary. In Breton Sound estuary, we calculate shoreline exposure at 500 random points and then overlay a habitat suitability index for oysters. This method and the resulting visualization show areas most likely to support sustainable oyster populations as well as significantly reduce shoreline erosion. Our results demonstrate how site selection criteria, which include shoreline exposure and habitat suitability, are critical to ensuring greater positive impacts and longevity of oyster reef restoration projects.

Since 2009, Swedish municipalities have the possibility of limiting the coastal protection in rural areas with the LIS-tool in order to promote countryside development there. In 2013, Ronneby Kommun pointed out 28 such areas. The goal of this thesis is to describe the development in the coastal areas in Ronneby Kommun between 1960 and 2018, with a special focus on the recent development in the designated LIS areas since 2013. A proposal for the future application of the LIS-tool in the municipality is an additional goal. For the analysis of the LIS-tool as such, the author conducted two expert interviews and compared the results with the quantitative GIS-based analysis, using orthophotos, of the building activity along the shores in Ronneby Kommun. The data shows very low building activity within the LIS areas and a generally low building activity in the municipality recently. For the further application of the LIS-tool in its present form in Ronneby Kommun, the author proposes to either combine it with other measures to increase the attractivity of the existing LIS areas such as infrastructure improvements, or to wait some more time until the pressure on the housing market increases and thereby the general building activity. The municipality can then evaluate the individual areas independently of each other and adjust them to meet the demand on the housing market. In addition, the author and the experts suggest changing the LIS-tool in order to make it more forceful, independent and regional specific. In general, the results of this thesis are regional specific on Ronneby Kommun and, therefore, this thesis can be a comparison base for other research but does not generalize.

2009/2010 infördes i Miljöbalken och Plan- och Bygglagen ett nytt begrepp, landsbygdsutveckling i strandnära lägen (LIS). Lagändringen genomfördes med motiveringen att områden med låg exploateringsgrad samt god tillgång till stränder skulle få en möjlighet till lättnader i strandskyddet, detta för att kunna erbjuda attraktiva lägen för boende och verksamhet inom kommunen. Sedan denna ändring infördes har kommunerna huvudansvaret för att pröva dispenser för strandskydd inom kommunen, Länsstyrelsen har huvudsakligen en granskande roll. När lagändringen 2009/2010 kom infördes det i Plan- och Bygglagen en möjlighet för kommunerna att sedan 1 februari 2010 peka ut LIS-områden inom kommunen i sin översiktsplan, tematiskt tillägg till översiktsplanen eller i en fördjupad översiktsplan. Syftet med denna studie är att jämföra och kartlägga hur 44 kommuner runtom i landet använder sig av LIS. Studien syftar även till att kartlägga hur olika Länsstyrelser i olika län runtom i landet arbetar tillsammans med kommunerna i frågan om LIS. Studiens första del är kvantitativ för att sammanställa den statistik som ligger till grund för studiens resultat. Studien innehåller även en kvalitativ del som syftar till att analysera den statistik som framställts inom studien. Studien mynnar ut i slutsatsen att kommunerna och Länsstyrelsen har olika syn på LIS i helhet, vilket syns genom de synpunkter som Länsstyrelsen lämnar till kommunen via sitt granskningsyttrande. Ett mönster för vilka synpunkter som är vanligast att Länsstyrelsen lämnar har uppmärksammats inom studien. De vanligaste synpunkterna från Länsstyrelsen är att kommunerna inte tillgodosett syftet med LIS, syftet med strandskyddet samt ett eller flera riksintressen som påverkar tillämpningen av LIS. Studien visar att kommunerna följer den lagstiftning som reglerar var LIS-områden får pekas ut. Studiens fördjupande del visar att kommuner med olika politisk styrning arbetar med LIS på varierande sätt. De huvudsakliga skillnaderna i hantering av LIS-områden beroende av politisk styrning är antalet områden som pekas ut. Den politiska styrningen inom en kommun har större inverkan på utpekande av antalet LIS-områden än kommunens geografiska läge i Sverige, enligt den fördjupande delen i studiens resultat. / 2009/2010 a new concept was brought into Environmental code and Planning and Building Act, which was countryside development in areas close to shores (LIS). This amendment was motivated by that areas which have a low degree of exploited land area and high access to seaside areas would get an opportunity to reliefs in coastal protection regulations, in order to be able to offer attractive areas for living and establishing different activities within the municipality. Since the amendment came into force the main responsibility for approval of exceptions from costal protection regulations is on the county. The county administrative board main responsibility is to keep an eye on the granted approvals of the municipalities. The amendments in the Planning and Building Act resulted in the possibility for the municipalities to present areas in with a relief in coastal protection regulations, as a part of the comprehensive plan, an addition to the comprehensive plan or an extensive version for a part of the comprehensive plan. The purpose of this study is to investigate and compare how the legislation about LIS is applied, by studying 44 municipalities including the documents of comments from the county administrative board. The first part of the study is the quantitative part which contains collecting and compile information and statistics in which the study will be founded. The study also contains a qualitative part of analyzing the results obtained in the quantitative part. Overall the study shows that there is a disagreement between the municipalities and the county administrative board regarding costal protection regulation. The conclusion is based on the results from the study presenting the comments from the county administrative board to the municipalities during the final examine before the comprehensive plan is adopted by the municipal council. The results in the study show a pattern in the most frequent comments from the county administrative board compiled. The most common comment from the county administrative board is that the municipality has not fulfilled the purpose of the legislation about LIS. Furthermore, the municipality has not considered national interests in the municipal areas meant for LIS. The study shows that different political ideology has an influence on the execution of the legislation about LIS in municipalities. The results in the study show that the political ideology has an impact on the numbers of areas which the municipalities present as LIS. As a matter of fact, the impact of political ideology is greater than the impact of geographical similarities between two municipalities, according to the results in the study.

The purpose of this study was to investigate how the planning tool LIS, countryside development in areas close to shores has been applied in Norrbotten County. And what problems the municipalities experience in the planning process. Today's regulations for rural development in coastal locations have been criticized in investigations and by politicians for lacking geographical flexibility and that the planning tool isn’t adapted for sparsely populated areas. The study is a case study where the empirical evidence is mainly based on documents and investigations linked to rural development in coastal locations. The analysis has been carried out using broad thematic concepts. To get a greater understanding of how the planning tool is used in Norrbotten, interviews have been conducted with three municipalities with large rural areas. All those interviewed work with or have experience of the planning tool. The study shows that rural development in coastal locations has several problems with the enforcement and interpretation of the regulations. And that the planning tool itself does not contribute to rural development but that it can be seen as part of a larger context. However, two of the municipalities express that LIS is important to their municipalities to be able to offer attractive beach plots. A new report presented in December 2020, which aims to improve current regulations, has been received with some positive caution. The municipalities believe that the presented improvements are a step in the right direction towards a more geographically flexible regulatory framework. But that there are still major shortcomings in the enforcement of the regulations and that the municipalities need to have a greater influence in decisions regarding establishment in rural areas.

More people are drawn towards cities for better opportunities of work and studies. This makes it difficult for Swedish rural municipalities to attract and retain residents. Rural development in areas with close proximity to water, LIS, aims to enable exemptions from coast protection in order to develop the rural areas where exploitation of attractive environments becomes possible. The aim of this thesis is to study LIS as a tool for rural development in order to understand which opportunities and challenges the tool generates in the planning process. Our collection of empirical data has primarily consisted of interviews and document analysis which, together with theories about rural areas, attractive housing and the planning process, has created an understanding of what opportunities and limitations LIS has at present. This case study investigates two rural municipalities’ development by LIS. The main findings of this study are that different interpretations of the legislation limit communication between central parties in the planning process and that the legislation today is not adapted to rural municipalities conditions. / Allt fler människor söker sig till städer för arbete och studier vilket gör det svårt för svenska landsbygdskommuner att locka och behålla kommuninvånare. Landsbygdsutveckling i strandnära lägen, LIS, syftar till att möjliggöra för dispens från strandskydd i syfte att utveckla landsbygden där bebyggelse i attraktiva miljöer blir möjlig. Syftet med uppsatsen är att studera LIS-områden som ett verktyg för landsbygdsutveckling för att förstå vilka möjligheter och utmaningar verktyget kan generera i planeringsprocessen. Vår empiriinsamling har primärt bestått av intervjuer och dokumentanalys som tillsammans med teorier om landsbygd, attraktivitet och planprocessen skapat en bild om vilka möjligheter och begränsningar LIS i dagsläget besitter. Genom att studera två kommuners utveckling av strandnära lägen har vi genom en fallstudie belyst hur olika tolkningar av lagstiftningen begränsar kommunikationen mellan centrala parter i planprocessen samt att lagstiftningen idag inte är anpassad efter landsbygdskommuners förutsättningar.