O espaço fornece uma estrutura conceitual rica que nos possibilita distinguir objetos, compreender as suas funções e relacioná-los. O pensamento espacial é uma atividade cognitiva composta por conceitos e representações de espaço e aplicação a processos de raciocínio. Existem diversas evidências científicas que apontam que o pensamento espacial desempenha um papel fundamental tanto na atividade científica quanto na aprendizagem de ciências e matemática. O pensamento espacial se baseia em habilidades espaciais, tais como rotação mental e orientação espacial. Ainda, há resultados científicos que apontam que crianças do gênero masculino, tipicamente, possuem um desempenho melhor em testes de habilidades espaciais do que crianças do gênero feminino. Assim, o principal objetivo desta pesquisa consiste em desenvolver, implementar e analisar uma atividade que pretende desenvolver habilidades espaciais. Nosso trabalho se apoia na teoria da cognição incorporada, que considera que os processos cognitivos estão fortemente ligados a comportamentos motores e sensoriais. A atividade proposta consiste em um jogo chamado Math-e-motion projetado para estudantes do terceiro ano do Ensino Fundamental. Nesse jogo, estudantes exercem os papéis de saltadores e observadores. Os saltadores executam movimentos em um plano coordenado desenhado no chão. Os observadores, por sua vez, devem delinear o movimento executado pelo saltador em um plano coordenado desenhado numa prancheta. Mais importantemente, tal delineamento deve ser dado de acordo com a perspectiva do saltador. Todos os estudantes executam os dois papéis. Avaliamos a atividade proposta através de dois estudos controlados, cada qual envolvendo alunos de escolas públicas brasileiras. Como produto de uma colaboração internacional, também executamos o primeiro estudo em uma escola nos Estado Unidos. Os resultados obtidos indicam uma melhora nas habilidades de orientação espacial e de rotação mental. Além disso, os resultados também apontam para uma redução na diferença no desempenho do teste de orientação espacial entre os gêneros feminino e masculino. Para habilidades matemáticas, houve melhora significativa na habilidade de leitura de gráficos com informações implícitas. Com o respaldo da teoria da cognição incorporada, a nossa pesquisa pretende contribuir com uma discussão acerca do papel do corpo no processo de aprendizagem. / Space provides a rich conceptual framework that enables us to distinguish objects, understand their functions, and relate them. Spatial thinking is a cognitive activity composed of concepts and representations of space and application to reasoning processes. There is substantial scientific evidence showing that spatial thinking plays a fundamental role in the scientific activity and in the learning of science and mathematics. Spatial thinking relies on spatial abilities, such as mental rotation and spatial orientation. Moreover, there are scientific results showing that boys typically outperform girls in tests of spatial abilities. Therefore, the main goal of this research is to develop, implement, and analyze an activity that aims at developing spatial abilities. Our work relies on the theory of embodied cognition, which considers that cognitive processes are strongly linked to motor and sensory behaviors. The proposed activity is a game called Math-e-motion designed for students in third grade of Elementary School. In this game, students play the roles of jumpers and observers. The jumpers perform movements in a coordinate plane drawn on the floor. The observers, in turn, are asked to delineate the movement performed by the jumper in a coordinate plane drawn on a clipboard. Most importantly, such a delineation must be given according to the jumper\'s perspective. All students play both roles. We evaluated the proposed activity by means of two controlled studies, with each involving a group of students from two Brazilian public schools. As a product of an international collaboration, we also executed the first study in a private school in the United States. Our results showed an improvement in spatial orientation and mental rotation abilities. In addition, we also found a reduction in the difference of the scores obtained by male and female students in the spatial orientation test. For math abilities, we found a significant improvement in the ability to read charts with implicit information. With the support of the embodied cognition theory, our research aims at contributing with a discussion about the role of the body in the learning process.

Submitted by Silvana Teresinha Dornelles Studzinski (sstudzinski) on 2015-07-08T18:12:01Z No. of bitstreams: 1 BrunaRobertaLand.pdf: 215355 bytes, checksum: a89a641acf65c0cc0a299d44b8a55300 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2015-07-08T18:12:01Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 BrunaRobertaLand.pdf: 215355 bytes, checksum: a89a641acf65c0cc0a299d44b8a55300 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011 / Nenhuma / Este trabalho se propôs a estudar e investigar o processo de bullying, sóciocognições e estilos parentais de 221 crianças de 09 a 14 anos, regularmente matriculadas em duas escolas públicas da cidade de Novo Hamburgo, RS. Os participantes responderam a uma escala sobre sua percepção acerca dos estilos parentais e outra que investigava atribuições causais (sócio-cognições) relacionadas aos relacionamentos interpessoais no contexto escolar. Também tiveram que eleger colegas que julgassem agressivos, agressores no bullying, pró-sociais, vitimizados (bullying) e isoladas ativamente a partir de uma escala com afirmações acerca de condutas típicas destes grupos. A partir destes dados, levantaram-se as frequências com que as crianças foram referidas pelos seus colegas e amostra foi dividida em quatro grupos de crianças (Agressores, Socialização, Isolado e Vitimazação). As correlações entre variáveis mostram que as subescala Agressividade está correlacionada positivamente com as subescalas de Vitimização e Socialização. Este dado significa que crianças agressivas são percebidas como sociáveis, porém também podem tornar-se vítimas do bullying. A subescala de Isolamento está correlacionada positivamente com a subescala Vitimização, o que mostra que ser vítima aumenta o isolamento social e reforça assim os papéis do bullying. Testes T de Student calculados mostram que a agressividade foi maior entre as meninas do que entre os meninos, indo de encontro à literatura existente. Quanto aos Estilos Parentais, quando percebidos como positivos pelas crianças estão também associados a comportamentos de socialização e menos chance destes jovens tornarem-se vítimas de bullying, corroborando a literatura existente. Foram encontradas correlações positivas entre sócio-cognições e estilos parentais. Este dado demonstra que os pais participam ativamente da formação das crenças e cognições de seus filhos, positivamente ou negativamente. Esses dados podem ajudar a pensar em políticas públicas para o enfrentamento e prevenção ao bullying, como no trabalho em clínicas particulares, enfatizando o trabalho com as famílias de vítimas e agressores desta violência.

The current study examines associations between community violence exposure (CVE) and internalizing and externalizing symptoms. The emotional desensitization hypothesis states that moderate levels of CVE will be associated with increased internalizing symptoms, whereas high levels of CVE will be associated with decreases in internalizing distress. The current study extends prior research by examining whether patterns of emotional desensitization differ based on the route of exposure – either being personally victimized or witnessing community violence. Further, associations examined the influence of interpersonal proximity to the victims of violence – that is, whether individuals are victims themselves (most proximal), witness violence against known individuals, or witness violence against strangers (least proximal). Participants include 714 undergraduate students (Mage = 20.5 years, SD = 3.9) who completed an online survey of CVE, internalizing and externalizing outcomes, and cognitions supporting aggression. Results revealed significant moderation by interpersonal proximity. Specifically, curvilinear associations between CVE and internalizing symptoms, reflecting emotional desensitization, were stronger at lower levels of proximity, whereas positive linear associations emerged at higher levels of proximity. Associations between CVE and more externalizing behaviors were stronger at low, compared to high, levels of proximity. Internalizing symptoms and cognitions supporting aggression partially mediated the association between CVE and externalizing behaviors. Further, latent profile analysis revealed that distinct groups of individuals were classified based on cumulative frequency of CVE and types of violent experiences. Thus, route of exposure, relationship to the victims of violence, and type of violence are each salient characteristics of CVE that may relate differentially to adjustment.

Religious beliefs and practices are an important source of symptom relief for individuals with schizophrenia; however, it can also be a debilitating source of symptom exacerbation. This quantitative study examined the cognitions and religious life orientations of Christian individuals both with and without a diagnosis of schizophrenia, as measured by the Rust Inventory of Schizotypal Cognitions (RISC) and the Religious Life Inventory (RLI) to examine a baseline for healthy religious cognitions. The aberrant-salience and attribution theories were used to explore the relationship between psychotic stimuli and religious attributions. One hundred and thirty Christian individuals from an outpatient mental health facility, both with and without a diagnosis of schizophrenia completed the RISC and the RLI. A t-test showed that individuals with schizophrenia scored higher on average on the schizotypal cognitions continuum than individuals without a diagnosis. The results of an ANOVA indicated that individuals with a Quest religious life orientation rendered higher scores on the schizotypal cognitions scale. This research study showed that higher levels of schizotypal cognitions were associated with low religiosity. Overall, individuals with schizophrenia showed no difference in religiosity compared to individuals without schizophrenia. This study addressed the stigma of religious practice among individuals with schizophrenia. Results of this study have positive social implications for individuals with schizophrenia and their practitioners/clergy who incorporate religion as a coping method for symptom relief.

ABSTRACT Despite the increasing prevalence of remarriages over the last several decades, little work has been done in establishing theories and models specific to remarried couples and stepfamilies. To address this gap, the multidimensional cognitive development model for individuals in stepfamilies was utilized. To evaluate the model, this study tested the consistency tenet, which is central to the model. Consistency of cognitions is assumed to be of primary importance in stepfamily relationships and a balanced system is one that is defined by consistency of cognitions. Data were analyzed from the "Relationship Quality and Stability in Utah Newlywed Remarriages" study. With a sample of 447 husband and wife couples, paired sample t tests and hierarchical regression were completed. The results indicate that individual endorsements of remarriage beliefs are more predictive of remarital outcomes than is consistency of cognitions between husband and wife. A critique of the multidimensional cognitive development model is discussed. Limitations of the current study are addressed and recommendations for future research are given.

Description des axes de recherche Enseigner lhistoire de lart aujourdhui ne veut pas dire nier ou rejeter ce que le cours est et a été. Les voies nouvelles offertes par le monde polymorphe de limage et un environnement culturel en rapide mutation nous poussent cependant à enseigner lhistoire de lart autrement. La complexité même du langage iconique contraint les enseignants à élargir leurs stratégies pédagogiques. Lart contemporain en particulier nous pousse à une remise en question de la tradition pédagogique dun tel enseignement. Chapitre I De lanalyse multidisciplinaire : généralités et particularités Lanalyse multidisciplinaire est la juxtaposition, autour dun même «objet», danalyses conduites selon plusieurs points de vue. Chaque discipline convoquée conserve sa spécificité, ce qui permet à lenseignant une gestion globale de lanalyse. Lanalyse multidisciplinaire permet également de conserver la maîtrise du cours en évitant les écueils de linterdisciplinarité. Ce type dapproche analytique exige une ouverture desprit et une culture générale toujours en éveil. Par lintégration dune telle démarche denseignement, nous souhaitons aboutir à la défragmentation des savoirs afin déviter leur atomisation artificielle. Ainsi, le compartimentage ou découpage systématique de la matière doit laisser place à une vision plus proche de la réalité des faits et de leur continuité, ancrée dans le jeu des influences conscientes ou inconscientes. Lhistoire de lart est une et complexe. Concevoir cette complexité demande de passer par une mise en évidence de la notion de causalité dans le grand jeu des influences. Chapitre II Limage comme objet de lanalyse multidisciplinaire Le langage de limage comme médiateur Habituellement, nous entendons le terme image dans une acception restreinte. Pour nous, historien dart, il ne sagit pas dévaluer le tout-venant de la production visuelle, mais des documents qui, témoignant détats de conscience et de culture, ont été sélectionnés par le grand musée imaginaire de lhistoire. Changer de position semble nécessaire pour jeter un pont entre notre culture de limage, quelque peu élitiste, et la culture de nos élèves. Nous devons mettre les images actuelles au service du grand musée imaginaire. Médiatisation à outrance ou surconsommation de limage caractérisent notre époque. Or les racines des images actuelles se cachent dans des terres de références : les clés des images daujourdhui nous viennent du passé. Par lanalyse de limage, il est possible douvrir le concept dhistoire de lart. Lire une image, cest dépasser le stade de lanalyse des éléments qui la constituent pour mettre au jour ce qui fondamentalement fait sens. Une telle compréhension suppose des méthodes dappréciation permettant à lélève détablir avec les images une relation qui ne fasse pas de lui un consommateur passif. Notre objectif est dassurer une formation équilibrée dont les piliers indispensables sont la perspective historique axe majeur de lhistoire de lart , lanalyse esthétique et lanalyse des significations. Cest la raison dêtre de lintervention des historiens de lart dans le monde de la communication iconique. Lenseignement systématique de ce langage spécifique éviterait une disparition de la compréhension des images qui ont fait notre histoire et qui fondent les images actuelles et à venir. La métaphore comme médiatrice Le pouvoir visuel du langage la capacité à associer des mots qui, mentalement, produisent des images doit être mis en évidence dans le discours de lenseignant. Comparaisons, métaphores, allégories et analogies sont autant doutils qui favorisent lentendement . Utiliser de tels outils équivaut à une technique denseignement facilitant le chemin qui mène au sens profond de luvre. Parabole, métaphore ou analogie, tout discours « imagé» apporte des moyens cognitifs évidents, pour autant quil soit en prise directe avec le vécu de lélève. Nous participons dune certaine manière au processus make-believe . Prendre la place de médiateur entre le sens profond du message iconique et lélève devient un concept didactique opérant. La première journée interuniversitaire des Didactiques dHistoire de lArt organisée à lUniversité de Liège en mars 2004 poursuivait un double objectif. Il sagissait dune part de démontrer la nécessité de développer et de préciser les objectifs de notre enseignement disciplinaire, dautre part de faire prendre conscience de lintérêt de léquation «de lhistoire de lart à lanalyse de limage» . La compétence de lhistorien dart consistera à préciser les champs respectifs et les interactions entre les images actuelles et historiques. Chapitre III Lart et le cerveau : première optimisation de lanalyse multidisciplinaire Léquation cerveau et apprentissage est apparue il y a maintenant une dizaine dannées dans les écrits consacrés à la didactique . Les neurosciences sont à la base de cette prise de conscience fondamentale. Convaincu par lévidence de léquation, nous avons à notre tour cherché à explorer cette piste en rapport avec lobjet de notre cours : lart. Comprendre comment le cerveau évolue en fonction des expériences permet des avancées significatives en psychologie, en pédagogie et en didactique. Et pour cause, les modifications de lactivité synaptique sont sans aucun doute à la base des processus dapprentissage et de mémorisation. Notre cerveau est en perpétuel remaniement. La plasticité cérébrale est synonyme dun renouvellement organisationnel des réseaux de neurones en fonction des expériences vécues. Aujourdhui, la recherche scientifique a démontré que cette plasticité du cerveau est la clé de voûte de nos apprentissages et quelle se présente comme un jeu complexe de montages et de démontages. Fonctionnement du cerveau : examen de la «boîte à outils» Les émotions, lempathie, lhéritage génétique (précâblage), la transmission des idées ou lanalogisation sont des pistes exploitables et exploitées pour aborder le phénomène de la création artistique et concevoir des approches qui permettent de renouveler lenseignement de lhistoire de lart. Enseigner lhistoire de lart ou lanalyse de limage nécessite de jeter un pont entre la réalité créée par lartiste et les référents culturels de lélève. Le développement de la motivation de lélève, par lexpression et lanalyse de lémotion ou empathie raisonnée, constitue un axe fort de la communication dans le domaine des arts. Forme de compréhension, lempathie se définit par la capacité de percevoir et de saisir les sentiments dautrui. Lempathie est le témoin et le vecteur de la communication émotionnelle. Plus nous sommes sensibles à nos propres émotions, plus nous sommes capables dexprimer et de communiquer de lempathie parce quen développant notre propre conscience ou intelligence émotionnelle, nous pouvons percevoir les émotions des autres de manière plus juste et y répondre spontanément avec précision . À la différence de la sympathie ou de lantipathie, lempathie est un mécanisme par lequel nous tentons de faire abstraction de notre univers subjectif de référence de manière à apprécier la conception de la réalité de lautre. Travailler lempathie permet de confronter les différentes perceptions de la réalité. Sensibilité et réceptivité sont autant de supports qui permettent de libérer et dexprimer le sens profond dune uvre dart. Mettre en place un apprentissage systématique basé sur lintelligence émotionnelle est un axe essentiel de nos recherches. Attentif à mettre en place un cadre épistémologique permettant de penser le phénomène de la perception, nous remarquons que toutes les expériences sont connotées émotionnellement. Contextualiser une émotion est une démarche fondamentale pour comprendre son émergence et son accomplissement. Le monde des arts est sans aucun doute le lieu de prédilection de la vie émotionnelle. La connotation émotionnelle se construit dans le champ perceptif de chacun des partenaires de lexpérience artistique. Si luvre projette un ensemble démotions figées dans la matière, force est de constater que les relations entre un professeur, un élève et une uvre sont à géométrie variable. Le tout se présente comme une expérience émotionnelle unique. Le «quotient émotionnel» est défini et mesuré par lanalyse de quatre aptitudes : laptitude à identifier son état émotionnel et celui des autres, laptitude à comprendre le déroulement naturel des émotions, laptitude à raisonner sur ses propres émotions et celles des autres et, enfin, laptitude à gérer ses émotions et celles des autres. Cest donc le pouvoir de lire dans les pensées ou mindreading, qui est une des conditions majeures de lémergence de lesprit humain, ladite compétence nous distingue des animaux. Notre objectif consiste à trouver une voie analytique et à élaborer une structure didactique au départ de la connaissance du cerveau. Au-delà dun cheminement tout intérieur, notre enseignement doit en effet nous conduire à une explication de la transmission des idées. Le fonctionnement du cerveau qui contemple et qui crée est un axe danalyse complémentaire à lanalyse multidisciplinaire. Chapitre IV Lart et le cerveau global : seconde optimisation de lanalyse multidisciplinaire Nous sommes tous comparables aux neurones dun cerveau gigantesque. Pour reprendre une terminologie existante, nous constituons les unités personnelles dun réseau intelligent ou «cerveau global». La métaphore du réseau dinformation en tant que «cerveau global» peut sétendre à lensemble de la société en tant quorganisme global : cest le concept de noosphère selon Teilhard de Chardin, de cerveau planétaire selon Joël de Rosnay, de super-cerveau selon Francis Heylighen, ou encore de cerveau social ou desprit global. Lart sinscrit dans ce principe. «Depuis les premiers pas de lordinateur personnel en 1983, écrivains et scientifiques publient des livres consacrés à la création dun cerveau global futur, composé dordinateurs reliés en réseau. [] Cette intelligence mondiale nest pas le résultat de la Silicon Valley mais bien une des phases dévolution de ce cerveau global qui existe depuis plus de trois milliards dannées ! En effet, la Nature est bien plus douée en réseaux informatiques que nous : ses mécanismes déchanges de données et de création collective sont encore plus complexes et plus agiles que tout ce que les meilleurs théoriciens informatiques ont imaginé jusquà présent.» Nous participons tous en effet à lexpérience unique de la vie, et lart est en somme le cadeau dans la boîte. Luvre dart nest pas le résultat des pensées dun individu isolé : lartiste est le récepteur de multiples informations et son uvre, le produit dune synthèse. Lart est communication : des mots sur des images et des images sur des mots. La pensée visuelle et la pensée verbale tissent le fil dAriane de la connaissance. Grâce à ce fil qui nous relie, les savoirs séchangent, sentrechoquent, sinterpénètrent. Des liens visibles et invisibles forment une toile culturelle. Nous devons être attentifs à ces liens qui nous unissent par le corps et par lesprit. Selon la thèse dite de la «coévolution», la culture suit un développement parallèle à celui de la biologie. Lart salignant ainsi sur le principe de base de cette coévolution, la question de la transmission des idées est devenue un véritable objectif scientifique et elle constitue pour nous un axe didactique. Luvre dart est une idée complexe, matérialisée par lartiste. Elle traverse le temps et marque les esprits. Quand la «transmission» devient style, certains scientifiques défendent lhypothèse dune relation de symétrie entre les gènes et les «mèmes» . La sélection naturelle peut expliquer bien des choses du monde des idées. À notre manière, nous avons expérimenté cette théorie lors de lélaboration du dossier pédagogique Flash Art, exemple type du cheminement dune sélection naturelle. Puisque lart et la science sont fondamentalement liés, nous devons appliquer les objectifs dune approche multidisciplinaire et, si possible, dune approche interdisciplinaire. Terminons ce voyage autour du cerveau par une question : existe-t-il une «neuroesthétique» ? Le fait de nommer une chose est une reconnaissance de son existence. Celle-ci reste à justifier. Chapitre V Prospectives didactiques Il est possible dapprendre à apprendre en prenant en compte des stratégies mentales dapprentissage, des motivations, etc. Les applications des recherches sur le cognitif sont multiples : communication, créativité, modélisation, thérapie, etc. Les neurosciences, qui sintéressent entre autres à nos compétences cognitives, et de manière plus large les découvertes du monde des sciences de lesprit doivent être convoquées et exploitées. Analyser les moyens de communication dans le but de rendre le discours plus performant et assumer cette médiation entre luvre et lélève nous amène à défricher des terres de recherche très différentes. Quentendre dès lors par prospective en éducation ? Tout ce qui touche à la recherche appliquée dans lenseignement avec laide des technologies de linformation et de la communication. Analyser aujourdhui pour se projeter dans le futur : nous envisageons les acquis et les manques dans le domaine de léducation aux arts et à limage pour conseiller autant que faire se peut.

The current coginitive models of the Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) symptoms focuses on the different cognitive factors. Like other nonspecific and noncognitive variables, these factors may also function as vulnerability factors. However, they have been mostly studied separately and majority of the findings in the literature come from the Western samples. Accordingly, the studies examining these factors together and the impact of the culture in these studies are sparse in number. The present study suggested a comprehensive cognitive model for OCD symptoms, including several distal and proximal vulnerability factors. It was aimed to adapt three instruments to examine the interrelationships among the vulnerability factors and OCD symptoms in different cultures. Relevant ten instruments were administered to the university students from Turkey and Canada. The analyses showed that Turkish versions of three instruments had satisfactory psychometric properties for Turkish students. These analyses also revealed some cross-cultural similarities and differences in these factors and OCD symptoms. Neuroticism, age, introversion, OCD beliefs on responsibility/threat estimation, perfectionism/certainty and thought-action fusion in likelihood dimension were found to be associated with the OCD symptoms in both Turkish and Canadian samples. The relational paths between non-specific, appraisal and control factors, and OCD symptoms were also significant in both samples. However, religiousness was only significant factor in OCD symptoms and contributed to several belief and control factors toward these symptoms, only for Turkish subjects. The analyses of the religiousness differences indicated that psychological fusion in general and in morality was more related to the religiosity for Canadian Christians. Besides, Turkish students seemed to utilize worry more for OCD symptoms / whereas, Canadian participants used self-punishment. These common and unique patterns of the relationships were discussed within relevant findings about characteristics of the religion and culture.

Parents’ beliefs about their ability to competently fulfill the duties of the parenting role have received limited research attention. The literature to date has emphasized the correlates and consequences of this construct, but relatively little work has examined factors that promote the development of parents’ efficacy beliefs. This dissertation research fills this gap by investigating predictors of parenting efficacy beliefs among immigrant Chinese families in Western Canada. Parenting efficacy beliefs were predicted to be influenced by support and encouragement from like-minded peers, and the successful completion of parenting tasks (mastery). This research explored these hypotheses by evaluating three questions. First, the research evaluated whether the receipt of support from Chinese- and Canadian-based sources, as well as spousal support would be associated with higher levels of parenting efficacy, as well as whether this association varied based on immigrant parents’ social context. There was no evidence that parents’ use of Chinese and Canadian supports was associated with feelings of efficacy, regardless of parents’ social context. The hypothesis that spousal support would be positively associated with parenting efficacy was supported for mothers, but not fathers. The second question evaluated whether mastery experiences, in the form of positive adolescent development in the domains of achievement, traditional Asian values and behavioural participation in the Chinese culture, were positively associated with parenting efficacy. There was no evidence of any main effects for these domains of adolescent functioning on parents’ feelings of efficacy. Third, the research evaluated parents’ socialization goals as a possible moderator of the association between adolescent development and parenting efficacy. It was hypothesized that the association between a domain of adolescent development and parenting efficacy would be strongest among parents who most strongly endorsed that domain as a socialization goal. This hypothesis was supported within domains of cultural development, but not academic achievement, and there was a different pattern of results for fathers and mothers. There was also an unexpectedly strong positive association between parents’ interdependence goals and feelings of parenting efficacy. Overall, the results suggested that feelings of parenting efficacy were relatively robust in the face of challenges associated with immigration (e.g., loss of support from culturally relevant sources) and minor violations of parents’ socialization goals. Furthermore, the results emphasized cultural retention as an important predictor of parenting efficacy. The results suggest two avenues of intervention that may assist in promoting feelings of parenting competence among immigrant Chinese parents: the development of a strong co-parenting relationship and the provision of support for cultural retention.

Traditional socialization theories suggest that parents shape their children, and parents’ socialization strategies are decided upon largely independent of the children. These ideas, however, have received criticism. In this dissertation, I focus on how children and adolescents influence their parents’ behaviors. Specifically, I examine parents’ reactions to problematic behaviors in their adolescents. In the three studies, I presented theoretical models that offered explanations why parents react as they do to problematic behaviors in their adolescents. In these models, parents’ cognitions worked as mechanisms to explain their subsequent reactions. The overall pattern in the studies was that parents tended to shift in cognitions about their own role as parents and their adolescents’ behaviors when they were faced with problematic behaviors, which influenced their behaviors toward their adolescents. In Study I, parents became less strictly opposed to adolescent drinking when they encountered their adolescents intoxicated. This reaction was explained by a reduction in dissonance between their attitudes to adolescent drinking and their knowledge of their own adolescents’ drinking. In Study II and Study III, parents of adolescents with hyperactivity, impulsivity, and attention problems (HIA) reported that their adolescents did not respond to their attempts to correct their behaviors. This cognition made them feel powerless and, as a consequence, they increased in negative behaviors and decreased in positive parenting strategies. In these two studies, parents decreased in their thoughts of being able to deal with their adolescents’ misbehaviors. In addition, as was shown in the third study, these cognitions seem to be influenced by parents’ earlier experiences with their first-born children. In sum, the results of this dissertation suggest that adolescents influence their parents’ cognitions and behaviors. Further, the results highlight the importance of focusing on how parents’ ways of thinking influence their parenting strategies.

The project described in this thesis was designed to investigate HIV preventive behaviour in heterosexual adolescents from a social-cognitive perspective. The project consisted of three studies. The design of each study was guided by a theory of human decision making, the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA), and its extension, the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB). In the first phase, an elicitation study was conducted in which characteristics of the population were identified. This study consisted of a series of semi-structured interviews in which participants' sexual behaviours, beliefs and normative influences were elicited. This information was required in order to enable studies two and three to target beliefs and behaviours relevant to the population being examined. In the second study, a large-scale survey of 417 university aged adolescents was conducted. This study was designed, primarily, to examine quantitatively the determinants of safe sex intentions and behaviours within the targeted population. Determinants of behaviour examined were those included in the TRA/TPB. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted to determine the amount of variance in safe sex intentions and behaviours accounted for by TRA/TPB variables. In addition, a number of methodological issues related to criticisms of the TRA/TPB in the context of prediction of sexual behaviours were investigated. These issues included the utility of examining preference for alternative safe sex strategies in accounting for non-use of condoms, the importance of considering behaviour change as a process rather than an outcome, the importance of heat of the moment decision-making in the prediction of condom use behaviour, and the importance of consistent specification of partner type in survey instruments examining condom use behaviour. The third phase of the project consisted of an intervention study designed to modify HIV-risk related beliefs and behaviours. Design and evaluation of the intervention were guided by the TRA/TPB. The intervention was conducted using 102 participants, randomly assigned to intervention or control conditions. Methodological issues examined in study 2 were further explored in this study. Overall, it was found that the Theories of Reasoned Action and Planned Behaviour provided a useful framework for understanding, predicting, and modifying HIV-related sexual behaviours. The theories were found to explain between 67 and 73% of variance in condom use intentions, and between 52 and 55% of variance in behaviour. The theories were also found to be applicable to other safe sex behaviours with 50% of variance accounted for in monogamy intentions, and 34% of variance explained in behaviour, and 40% of the variance in non-penetrative sexual intentions, but only 6% of variance in non-penetrative sexual behaviour explained. In addition, a behaviour modification intervention based on the theories was found to lead to change in both predictor variables and behaviours, relative to controls. These changes were maintained over a 6-month follow-up period. That is, a series of mixed factorial Analyses of Variance revealed that the percentage of encounters in which a condom was used was significantly greater for the four weeks prior to follow-up compared with the four weeks prior to the intervention. In addition, the number of 'slip-ups' into unsafe behaviours was found to be significantly less. Change in TRA/TPB predictor variables which accompanied these behavioural changes included increased perceptions of behavioural control, more positive attitudes towards sexuality and safe sex behaviours, and more positive normative perceptions. These results were seen to provide strong support for the theories of reasoned action and planned behaviour and for their relevance to the study of HIV-preventive behaviour. However, prediction of safe sex behaviours was found to be enhanced in most cases by consideration of the methodological issues explored in each study. Thus, it was found that consideration of safe sex strategies other than condom use and the type of partner with whom the behaviour was occurring were important in both the prediction and evaluation of efforts to modify condom use behaviour. In addition, prediction of condom use behaviour and evaluation of intervention effects were enhanced by the consideration of behaviour change as a stage-like process, rather than as an all or nothing outcome. Results relating to the importance of heat of the moment decision making were less clear, and further research is recommended to clarify the issue. Overall, these results have important implications for safe sex education, and should be considered in efforts to modify unsafe behaviour as well as efforts to evaluate the effects of this modification.