Base teórica: Artrite reumatoide (AR) é uma doença autoimune que afeta as articulações e progride de maneira simétrica e erosiva. Além dos achados articulares, pode ocorrer de perda muscular e síndrome da caquexia. Atualmente, não existe um marcador que sirva de preditor da síndrome de caquexia reumatoide. Estudos metabolômicos em pacientes com AR demonstram uma complexidade em encontrar um biomarcador para caquexia. Ademais, não há modelo experimental de caquexia descrito na literatura, mas o modelo de artrite induzida por colágeno (CIA) possui potencial de ser modelo de caquexia reumatoide. A partir deste modelo, pode-se fazer a busca por biomarcadores de caquexia reumatoide via metabolômica. Objetivo: Avaliar o modelo de CIA como modelo experimental de caquexia reumatoide. Avaliar o perfil metabólico da urina no modelo de CIA e correlacionar com parâmetros clínicos de caquexia reumatoide em busca de possíveis biomarcadores. Métodos: Camundongos machos DBA/1J foram induzidos (CIA; n=13) no dia zero e receberam reforço 18 dias após, e grupo mantidos saudáveis sem indução (CO; n=11). Nos dias 0, 18, 25, 35, 45, 55 e 65 após a indução, foram realizados: coleta de urinas; teste de desempenho físico; teste de locomoção espontânea; teste de força; medida do volume do edema da pata traseira; avaliação do escore clínico; pesagem; e avaliação da ingestão alimentar. Após os 65 dias, os animais foram eutanasiados e tecidos musculares (gastrocnêmio – GA; e tibial anterior – TA) foram dissecados para pesagem e realização da razão sarcoplasmática. Os dados foram analisados por ANOVA de duas vias, seguido de Bonferroni, ou teste t de Pearson, com significância a partir de um p<0,05. A urina coletada foi submetida à ressonância nuclear magnética (1D e 2D J-res). Os metabolitos foram identificados via Chenomx (1D) e pelo Birmingham Metabolite Library (BML; 2D J-res). Utilizou-se a o modelo estatístico de PCA, PLSDA e PLSR para criar ranqueamento de metabolitos (significância a partir de um p<0,05). Analizou-se as rotas metabólicas via Metaboanalyst a partir do ranqueamento de metabólitos obtidos. Os metabólitos obtidos foram filtrados para rotas metabólicas que ocorrem no músculo para identificação de potenciais biomarcadores de perda muscular. Resultados: O grupo CIA apresentou redução de até 24% na locomoção espontânea, de até 66% na força e de até 24% no teste de desempenho físico após 35 dias da indução, bem como redução no peso do GA (24%) e TA (25%), e relação sarcoplasmática (22 e 23%, respectivamente) em relação ao grupo CO. Os modelos estatísticos de PCA, PLSDA e PLSR, e o filtro pelas rotas metabólicas relacionadas com o músculo geraram uma lista de 28 metabólitos e relacionados com o desenvolvimento da doença, sendo eles: 3-metilhistidina, 4-aminobutirato, acetilcolina, arginina, aspartato, carnosina, creatina, creatinina, glutamina, histamina, histidina, isoleucina, leucina, metionina, lisina, mio-inositol, dimetilglicina, acetilalanina, acetilmetionina, pantotenato, fenilalanina, fosfocolina, fosfocreatina, piridoxina, sarcosina, succinilacetona, tiamina, e urocanato. Conclusão: Em concordância com os resultados de redução nos parâmetros de: massa muscular, locomoção espontânea, força e desempenho físico, somando-se a ausência de anorexia bem como mudança no peso, o modelo animal de CIA representa um modelo experimental próprio para caquexia reumatoide. A análise do perfil metabólico deste modelo permite sugerir 28 metabólitos relacionados ao processo de perda muscular, que podem vir a ser biomarcadores de caquexia reumatoide, objetivando prognóstico, diagnóstico e acompanhamento da síndrome. Destes metabólitos, os principais são pertencentes ao metabolismo de: histidina; arginina e prolina; glicina, serina e treonina; fosfocreatina, bem como outros aminoácidos e vitaminas do complexo B. / Background: Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease that affects the joints and has a symmetric development and it is erosive. Besides joint damage, it can develop muscle loss progress into cachexia syndrome. Currently, there is no marker that can predict it development in rheumatoid patients. Metabolomics in RA have shown to be complex to find out a biomarker for this syndrome. Also, there is no experimental model of cachexia described in literature yet; however the collageninduced arthritis (CIA) animal model seems to be a feasible model for rheumatoid cachexia. With this model, the research for a biomarker of rheumatoid cachexia can be done by metabolomics. Objectives: It will be evaluated if the CIA animal model can be also an animal model of rheumatoid cachexia. Afterwards, it will be evaluated a metabolic profile from urine of this animal model and correlate with clinical signs of rheumatoid cachexia to find out plausible biomarkers of it. Methods: Male DBA/1J mice were submitted to CIA (n=13), immunization occurred at day zero and a booster was performed 18 days after, and a healthy group with no induction (CO; n=11). At the 0,18, 25, 35, 45, 55 and 65 days after the first injection, it was done: urine collection; physical performance test; free exploratory locomotion test; strength test; hindpaw edema volume measurement; follow up disease development; weighted; and food intake. After the 65 days, animals were euthanized and muscle (gastrocnemious – GA; and tibial anterior – TA) were dissected, and weighted for sarcoplasmic ratio. Data were analyzed by two-way ANOVA followed by Bonferroni post hoc, and t-test of Pearson, and statistical critical limit was set for p<0.05. The collected urine was used for nuclear magnetic resonance (1D and 2D J-res). Metabolites were identified by Chenomx (1D) and by the Birmingham Metabolite Library (BML; 2D J-res). Statistical model were performed using PCA, PLSDA and PLSR to create a ranking list of the metabolites (statistical critical limit was set for p<0.05). It was analyzed the metabolic pathway by Metaboanalyst from the data of metabolite ranking list. Then, the metabolite list was filtered by the metabolic pathways that take place in muscle tissue, in order to identify plausible biomarkers of muscle loss. Results: CIA group has shown reduction in up to 24% of free locomotion fatigue, up to 66% of strength and up to 24% of endurance physical performance after 35 days of the induction, as well as a decrease in GA (24%) and TA (25%) weight, and sarcoplasmic ratio also reduced (22 and 23%, respectivamente) related to CO group. The PCA, PLSDA and PLSR statistical models, and the filter by metabolic pathways related to muscle provided a list of 28 metabolites related to disease development, as can be listed: 3-methylhistidine, 4-aminobutyrate, acetylcholine, arginine, aspartate, carnosine, creatine, creatinine, glutamine, histamine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, methionine, lysine, myo-inositol, dimethylglycine, acetylalanine, acetylmethionine, pantothenate, phenylalanine, phosphocholine, phosphocreatine, pyridoxine, sarcosine, succinylacetone, thiamine, and urocanate. Conclusions: Accordingly with the data with reduction of: muscle mass, spontaneous locomotion, strength and physical performance, added with absence of anorexia as well as weight change, CIA animal model is a feasible experimental model for rheumatoid cachexia. Concerning the metabolic profile from this model, it can be suggested 28 metabolites related to muscle loss in which can be tested for biomarker of rheumatoid cachexia, targeting prognosis, diagnosis, and syndrome follow up. From those metabolites, the main ones are engaged to metabolism of: histidine; arginine and proline; glycine, serine and threionine; phosphorcreatine, as well as other amino acids and vitamins from B complex.

B cells have a central role in the pathogenesis of collagen-induced arthritis (CIA), an animal model of the autoimmune disease rheumatoid arthritis. In this report, a specific subset of an innate type of B cells, B-1 B cells, have been studied for the involvement in CIA. The B-1 B cells were shown to produce small amounts of collagen-specific antibodies upon stimulation in vitro, suggesting that they play a minor role in the development of CIA. This report also includes how marginal zone B cells, another innate type of B cells with natural collagen-reactivity, can be identified in the medullary sinuses of lymph nodes of collagen-immunized mice, implying involvement in auto antigen trapping.

Base teórica: Artrite reumatoide (AR) é uma doença autoimune que afeta as articulações e progride de maneira simétrica e erosiva. Além dos achados articulares, pode ocorrer de perda muscular e síndrome da caquexia. Atualmente, não existe um marcador que sirva de preditor da síndrome de caquexia reumatoide. Estudos metabolômicos em pacientes com AR demonstram uma complexidade em encontrar um biomarcador para caquexia. Ademais, não há modelo experimental de caquexia descrito na literatura, mas o modelo de artrite induzida por colágeno (CIA) possui potencial de ser modelo de caquexia reumatoide. A partir deste modelo, pode-se fazer a busca por biomarcadores de caquexia reumatoide via metabolômica. Objetivo: Avaliar o modelo de CIA como modelo experimental de caquexia reumatoide. Avaliar o perfil metabólico da urina no modelo de CIA e correlacionar com parâmetros clínicos de caquexia reumatoide em busca de possíveis biomarcadores. Métodos: Camundongos machos DBA/1J foram induzidos (CIA; n=13) no dia zero e receberam reforço 18 dias após, e grupo mantidos saudáveis sem indução (CO; n=11). Nos dias 0, 18, 25, 35, 45, 55 e 65 após a indução, foram realizados: coleta de urinas; teste de desempenho físico; teste de locomoção espontânea; teste de força; medida do volume do edema da pata traseira; avaliação do escore clínico; pesagem; e avaliação da ingestão alimentar. Após os 65 dias, os animais foram eutanasiados e tecidos musculares (gastrocnêmio – GA; e tibial anterior – TA) foram dissecados para pesagem e realização da razão sarcoplasmática. Os dados foram analisados por ANOVA de duas vias, seguido de Bonferroni, ou teste t de Pearson, com significância a partir de um p<0,05. A urina coletada foi submetida à ressonância nuclear magnética (1D e 2D J-res). Os metabolitos foram identificados via Chenomx (1D) e pelo Birmingham Metabolite Library (BML; 2D J-res). Utilizou-se a o modelo estatístico de PCA, PLSDA e PLSR para criar ranqueamento de metabolitos (significância a partir de um p<0,05). Analizou-se as rotas metabólicas via Metaboanalyst a partir do ranqueamento de metabólitos obtidos. Os metabólitos obtidos foram filtrados para rotas metabólicas que ocorrem no músculo para identificação de potenciais biomarcadores de perda muscular. Resultados: O grupo CIA apresentou redução de até 24% na locomoção espontânea, de até 66% na força e de até 24% no teste de desempenho físico após 35 dias da indução, bem como redução no peso do GA (24%) e TA (25%), e relação sarcoplasmática (22 e 23%, respectivamente) em relação ao grupo CO. Os modelos estatísticos de PCA, PLSDA e PLSR, e o filtro pelas rotas metabólicas relacionadas com o músculo geraram uma lista de 28 metabólitos e relacionados com o desenvolvimento da doença, sendo eles: 3-metilhistidina, 4-aminobutirato, acetilcolina, arginina, aspartato, carnosina, creatina, creatinina, glutamina, histamina, histidina, isoleucina, leucina, metionina, lisina, mio-inositol, dimetilglicina, acetilalanina, acetilmetionina, pantotenato, fenilalanina, fosfocolina, fosfocreatina, piridoxina, sarcosina, succinilacetona, tiamina, e urocanato. Conclusão: Em concordância com os resultados de redução nos parâmetros de: massa muscular, locomoção espontânea, força e desempenho físico, somando-se a ausência de anorexia bem como mudança no peso, o modelo animal de CIA representa um modelo experimental próprio para caquexia reumatoide. A análise do perfil metabólico deste modelo permite sugerir 28 metabólitos relacionados ao processo de perda muscular, que podem vir a ser biomarcadores de caquexia reumatoide, objetivando prognóstico, diagnóstico e acompanhamento da síndrome. Destes metabólitos, os principais são pertencentes ao metabolismo de: histidina; arginina e prolina; glicina, serina e treonina; fosfocreatina, bem como outros aminoácidos e vitaminas do complexo B. / Background: Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease that affects the joints and has a symmetric development and it is erosive. Besides joint damage, it can develop muscle loss progress into cachexia syndrome. Currently, there is no marker that can predict it development in rheumatoid patients. Metabolomics in RA have shown to be complex to find out a biomarker for this syndrome. Also, there is no experimental model of cachexia described in literature yet; however the collageninduced arthritis (CIA) animal model seems to be a feasible model for rheumatoid cachexia. With this model, the research for a biomarker of rheumatoid cachexia can be done by metabolomics. Objectives: It will be evaluated if the CIA animal model can be also an animal model of rheumatoid cachexia. Afterwards, it will be evaluated a metabolic profile from urine of this animal model and correlate with clinical signs of rheumatoid cachexia to find out plausible biomarkers of it. Methods: Male DBA/1J mice were submitted to CIA (n=13), immunization occurred at day zero and a booster was performed 18 days after, and a healthy group with no induction (CO; n=11). At the 0,18, 25, 35, 45, 55 and 65 days after the first injection, it was done: urine collection; physical performance test; free exploratory locomotion test; strength test; hindpaw edema volume measurement; follow up disease development; weighted; and food intake. After the 65 days, animals were euthanized and muscle (gastrocnemious – GA; and tibial anterior – TA) were dissected, and weighted for sarcoplasmic ratio. Data were analyzed by two-way ANOVA followed by Bonferroni post hoc, and t-test of Pearson, and statistical critical limit was set for p<0.05. The collected urine was used for nuclear magnetic resonance (1D and 2D J-res). Metabolites were identified by Chenomx (1D) and by the Birmingham Metabolite Library (BML; 2D J-res). Statistical model were performed using PCA, PLSDA and PLSR to create a ranking list of the metabolites (statistical critical limit was set for p<0.05). It was analyzed the metabolic pathway by Metaboanalyst from the data of metabolite ranking list. Then, the metabolite list was filtered by the metabolic pathways that take place in muscle tissue, in order to identify plausible biomarkers of muscle loss. Results: CIA group has shown reduction in up to 24% of free locomotion fatigue, up to 66% of strength and up to 24% of endurance physical performance after 35 days of the induction, as well as a decrease in GA (24%) and TA (25%) weight, and sarcoplasmic ratio also reduced (22 and 23%, respectivamente) related to CO group. The PCA, PLSDA and PLSR statistical models, and the filter by metabolic pathways related to muscle provided a list of 28 metabolites related to disease development, as can be listed: 3-methylhistidine, 4-aminobutyrate, acetylcholine, arginine, aspartate, carnosine, creatine, creatinine, glutamine, histamine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, methionine, lysine, myo-inositol, dimethylglycine, acetylalanine, acetylmethionine, pantothenate, phenylalanine, phosphocholine, phosphocreatine, pyridoxine, sarcosine, succinylacetone, thiamine, and urocanate. Conclusions: Accordingly with the data with reduction of: muscle mass, spontaneous locomotion, strength and physical performance, added with absence of anorexia as well as weight change, CIA animal model is a feasible experimental model for rheumatoid cachexia. Concerning the metabolic profile from this model, it can be suggested 28 metabolites related to muscle loss in which can be tested for biomarker of rheumatoid cachexia, targeting prognosis, diagnosis, and syndrome follow up. From those metabolites, the main ones are engaged to metabolism of: histidine; arginine and proline; glycine, serine and threionine; phosphorcreatine, as well as other amino acids and vitamins from B complex.

Base teórica: Artrite reumatoide (AR) é uma doença autoimune que afeta as articulações e progride de maneira simétrica e erosiva. Além dos achados articulares, pode ocorrer de perda muscular e síndrome da caquexia. Atualmente, não existe um marcador que sirva de preditor da síndrome de caquexia reumatoide. Estudos metabolômicos em pacientes com AR demonstram uma complexidade em encontrar um biomarcador para caquexia. Ademais, não há modelo experimental de caquexia descrito na literatura, mas o modelo de artrite induzida por colágeno (CIA) possui potencial de ser modelo de caquexia reumatoide. A partir deste modelo, pode-se fazer a busca por biomarcadores de caquexia reumatoide via metabolômica. Objetivo: Avaliar o modelo de CIA como modelo experimental de caquexia reumatoide. Avaliar o perfil metabólico da urina no modelo de CIA e correlacionar com parâmetros clínicos de caquexia reumatoide em busca de possíveis biomarcadores. Métodos: Camundongos machos DBA/1J foram induzidos (CIA; n=13) no dia zero e receberam reforço 18 dias após, e grupo mantidos saudáveis sem indução (CO; n=11). Nos dias 0, 18, 25, 35, 45, 55 e 65 após a indução, foram realizados: coleta de urinas; teste de desempenho físico; teste de locomoção espontânea; teste de força; medida do volume do edema da pata traseira; avaliação do escore clínico; pesagem; e avaliação da ingestão alimentar. Após os 65 dias, os animais foram eutanasiados e tecidos musculares (gastrocnêmio – GA; e tibial anterior – TA) foram dissecados para pesagem e realização da razão sarcoplasmática. Os dados foram analisados por ANOVA de duas vias, seguido de Bonferroni, ou teste t de Pearson, com significância a partir de um p<0,05. A urina coletada foi submetida à ressonância nuclear magnética (1D e 2D J-res). Os metabolitos foram identificados via Chenomx (1D) e pelo Birmingham Metabolite Library (BML; 2D J-res). Utilizou-se a o modelo estatístico de PCA, PLSDA e PLSR para criar ranqueamento de metabolitos (significância a partir de um p<0,05). Analizou-se as rotas metabólicas via Metaboanalyst a partir do ranqueamento de metabólitos obtidos. Os metabólitos obtidos foram filtrados para rotas metabólicas que ocorrem no músculo para identificação de potenciais biomarcadores de perda muscular. Resultados: O grupo CIA apresentou redução de até 24% na locomoção espontânea, de até 66% na força e de até 24% no teste de desempenho físico após 35 dias da indução, bem como redução no peso do GA (24%) e TA (25%), e relação sarcoplasmática (22 e 23%, respectivamente) em relação ao grupo CO. Os modelos estatísticos de PCA, PLSDA e PLSR, e o filtro pelas rotas metabólicas relacionadas com o músculo geraram uma lista de 28 metabólitos e relacionados com o desenvolvimento da doença, sendo eles: 3-metilhistidina, 4-aminobutirato, acetilcolina, arginina, aspartato, carnosina, creatina, creatinina, glutamina, histamina, histidina, isoleucina, leucina, metionina, lisina, mio-inositol, dimetilglicina, acetilalanina, acetilmetionina, pantotenato, fenilalanina, fosfocolina, fosfocreatina, piridoxina, sarcosina, succinilacetona, tiamina, e urocanato. Conclusão: Em concordância com os resultados de redução nos parâmetros de: massa muscular, locomoção espontânea, força e desempenho físico, somando-se a ausência de anorexia bem como mudança no peso, o modelo animal de CIA representa um modelo experimental próprio para caquexia reumatoide. A análise do perfil metabólico deste modelo permite sugerir 28 metabólitos relacionados ao processo de perda muscular, que podem vir a ser biomarcadores de caquexia reumatoide, objetivando prognóstico, diagnóstico e acompanhamento da síndrome. Destes metabólitos, os principais são pertencentes ao metabolismo de: histidina; arginina e prolina; glicina, serina e treonina; fosfocreatina, bem como outros aminoácidos e vitaminas do complexo B. / Background: Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease that affects the joints and has a symmetric development and it is erosive. Besides joint damage, it can develop muscle loss progress into cachexia syndrome. Currently, there is no marker that can predict it development in rheumatoid patients. Metabolomics in RA have shown to be complex to find out a biomarker for this syndrome. Also, there is no experimental model of cachexia described in literature yet; however the collageninduced arthritis (CIA) animal model seems to be a feasible model for rheumatoid cachexia. With this model, the research for a biomarker of rheumatoid cachexia can be done by metabolomics. Objectives: It will be evaluated if the CIA animal model can be also an animal model of rheumatoid cachexia. Afterwards, it will be evaluated a metabolic profile from urine of this animal model and correlate with clinical signs of rheumatoid cachexia to find out plausible biomarkers of it. Methods: Male DBA/1J mice were submitted to CIA (n=13), immunization occurred at day zero and a booster was performed 18 days after, and a healthy group with no induction (CO; n=11). At the 0,18, 25, 35, 45, 55 and 65 days after the first injection, it was done: urine collection; physical performance test; free exploratory locomotion test; strength test; hindpaw edema volume measurement; follow up disease development; weighted; and food intake. After the 65 days, animals were euthanized and muscle (gastrocnemious – GA; and tibial anterior – TA) were dissected, and weighted for sarcoplasmic ratio. Data were analyzed by two-way ANOVA followed by Bonferroni post hoc, and t-test of Pearson, and statistical critical limit was set for p<0.05. The collected urine was used for nuclear magnetic resonance (1D and 2D J-res). Metabolites were identified by Chenomx (1D) and by the Birmingham Metabolite Library (BML; 2D J-res). Statistical model were performed using PCA, PLSDA and PLSR to create a ranking list of the metabolites (statistical critical limit was set for p<0.05). It was analyzed the metabolic pathway by Metaboanalyst from the data of metabolite ranking list. Then, the metabolite list was filtered by the metabolic pathways that take place in muscle tissue, in order to identify plausible biomarkers of muscle loss. Results: CIA group has shown reduction in up to 24% of free locomotion fatigue, up to 66% of strength and up to 24% of endurance physical performance after 35 days of the induction, as well as a decrease in GA (24%) and TA (25%) weight, and sarcoplasmic ratio also reduced (22 and 23%, respectivamente) related to CO group. The PCA, PLSDA and PLSR statistical models, and the filter by metabolic pathways related to muscle provided a list of 28 metabolites related to disease development, as can be listed: 3-methylhistidine, 4-aminobutyrate, acetylcholine, arginine, aspartate, carnosine, creatine, creatinine, glutamine, histamine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, methionine, lysine, myo-inositol, dimethylglycine, acetylalanine, acetylmethionine, pantothenate, phenylalanine, phosphocholine, phosphocreatine, pyridoxine, sarcosine, succinylacetone, thiamine, and urocanate. Conclusions: Accordingly with the data with reduction of: muscle mass, spontaneous locomotion, strength and physical performance, added with absence of anorexia as well as weight change, CIA animal model is a feasible experimental model for rheumatoid cachexia. Concerning the metabolic profile from this model, it can be suggested 28 metabolites related to muscle loss in which can be tested for biomarker of rheumatoid cachexia, targeting prognosis, diagnosis, and syndrome follow up. From those metabolites, the main ones are engaged to metabolism of: histidine; arginine and proline; glycine, serine and threionine; phosphorcreatine, as well as other amino acids and vitamins from B complex.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune inflammatory disease that leads to degradation of cartilage and bone mainly in peripheral joints. In collagen-induced arthritis (CIA), a mouse model for RA, activation of autoimmune CD4+ T cells depends on a molecular recognition system where T-cell receptors (TCRs) recognize a complex between the class II MHC Aq protein and CII259-273, a glycopeptide epitope from type II collagen (CII). Interestingly, vaccination with the Aq/CII259-273 complex can relieve symptoms and cause disease regression in mice. This thesis describes the use of modified glycopeptides to explore interactions important for binding to the Aq protein and recognition by autoimmune T-cell hybridomas obtained from mice with CIA. The CII259-273 glycopeptide was modified by replacement of backbone amides with different amide bond isosteres, as well as substitution of two residues that anchor the glycopeptide in prominent pockets in the Aq binding site. A three-dimensional structure of the Aq/glycopeptide complex was modeled to provide a structural basis for interpretation of the modified glycopeptide’s immunological activities. Overall, it was found that the amide bond isosteres affected Aq binding more than could be explained by the static model of the Aq/glycopeptide complex. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, however, revealed that the introduced amide bond isosteres substantially altered the hydrogen-bonding network formed between the N-terminal 259-265 backbone sequence of CII259-273 and Aq. These results indicated that the N-terminal hydrogen-bonding interactions follow a cooperative model, where the strength and presence of individual hydrogen bonds depended on the neighboring interactions. The two important anchor residues Ile260 and Phe263 were investigated using a designed library of CII259-273 based glycopeptides with substitutions by different (non-)natural amino acids at positions 260 and 263. Evaluation of binding to the Aq protein showed that there was scope for improvement in position 263 while Ile was preferred in position 260. The obtained SAR understanding provided a valuable basis for future development of modified glycopeptides with improved Aq binding. Furthermore, the modified glycopeptides elicited varying T-cell responses that generally could be correlated to their ability to bind to Aq. However, in several cases, there was a lack of correlation between Aq binding and T-cell recognition, which indicated that the interactions with the TCRs were determined by other factors, such as presentation of altered epitopes and changes in the kinetics of the TCR’s interaction with the Aq/glycopeptide complex. Several of the modified glycopeptides were also found to bind well to the human RA-associated DR4 protein and elicit strong responses with T-cell hybridomas obtained from transgenic mice expressing DR4 and the human CD4 co-receptor. This encourages future investigations of modified glycopeptides that can be used to further probe the MHC/glycopeptide/TCR recognition system and that also constitute potential therapeutic vaccines for treatment of RA. As a step towards this goal, three modified glycopeptides presented in this thesis have been identified as candidates for vaccination studies using the CIA mouse model.

Le costimulateur inductible (ICOS) est un récepteur costimulatoire des cellules T crucial pour l’immunité humorale. Chez l’humain, une déficience de ICOS est associée à des infections récurrentes dû à des défauts de différentiation des lymphocytes T auxiliaires folliculaires (Tfh) et un manque d’anticorps protecteurs. Paradoxalement, certains patients déficients en ICOS développent des signes d’autoimmunité causés par des autoanticorps. Ces observations sont en accord avec des résultats suggérant que ICOS joue un double rôle dans la promotion des fonctions de cellules T effectrices et de cellules T régulatrices. L’arthrite rhumatoïde (RA) est une maladie autoimmune caractérisée par l’inflammation articulaire et la destruction progressive des os. Dans la première étude présentée au Chapitre 2, nous avons démontré que ICOS est requis pour l’initiation et la maintenance de l’arthrite induite par le collagène (CIA), un modèle murin de la RA. Nous avons démontré que des événements clés de l’initiation de la CIA incluant la production d’anticorps contre le collagène et la prolifération de cellules T inflammatoires sont dépendants de la voie de signalisation ICOS-PI3K. Aussi, nous avons trouvé que la signalisation par ICOS-PI3K promouvoit le maintien de la CIA. De plus, nous avons établi que l’inhibition de la glycolyse réduit la sévérité de la CIA, ce qui suggère un chevauchement entre la signalisation ICOS-PI3K et le métabolisme du glucose dans la pathogenèse de l’arthrite autoimmune. Dans la deuxième étude présentée au Chapitre 3, nous avons utilisé des souris dont les cellules T régulatrices sont déficientes en ICOS (ICOS FC) pour évaluer l’impact de ICOS dans les cellules Tfr. Nous avons trouvé que les souris ICOS FC possèdent un taux réduit de cellules Tfr, mais aucune diminution des cellules T régulatrices (Treg) précurseurs. De plus, les souris ICOS FC ont un taux élevé de cellules B du centre germinatif (GC) non-spécifiques ainsi qu’une production accrue d’anticorps anti-nucléaires. Nous avons aussi observé une perturbation des réponses anti-virales et de la production d’anticorps spécifiques dans les souris ICOS FC ce qui suggère des rôles non-régulateurs pour les cellules Tfr. Nous avons effectué une analyse de transcriptome de cellule unique avec des Tregs et nous avons observé une accumulation de précurseurs de Tfr dans les souris ICOS FC, ce qui suggère un défaut de la transition Treg à Tfr. Nos données suggèrent que ICOS participe à la différentiation des cellules Tfr en régulant KLF2 et NFAT2, ce qui contribue à l’établissement de traits folliculaires. En résumé, nous avons démontré que ICOS promouvoit le développement de l’arthrite autoimmune en soutenant les fonctions des cellules T inflammatoires par la voie de signalisation ICOS-PI3K. De plus, nos résultats prouvent que ICOS peut prévenir la production d’autoanticorps en supportant la différentiation des cellules Tfr. Notre travail contribue à l’avancement des connaissances en ce qui concerne le rôle double de ICOS dans l’immunité cellulaire et humorale et fournit des paramètres importants à considérer lors de la recherche de nouvelles cibles thérapeutiques. / The inducible costimulator (ICOS) is a T cell costimulatory receptor crucial for humoral immunity. In humans, ICOS deficiency is associated with recurrent infections due to defects in T follicular helper (Tfh) differentiation and lack of protective antibodies. Paradoxically, some ICOS-deficient patients were found to exhibit signs of antibody-mediated autoimmunity. These observations are congruent with findings suggesting that ICOS plays a dual role in promoting T effector and T regulatory cell functions. Due to this ambivalence, the role of ICOS in autoimmunity remains unresolved. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease characterized by joint inflammation and progressive bone destruction. The number of ICOS+ T cells in the synovial tissues of RA patients was found to be elevated, suggesting a potential involvement of ICOS signaling in the pathogenesis of RA. In the first study presented in Chapter 2, we showed that ICOS is required for the initiation and maintenance of collagen-induced arthritis (CIA), a murine model of RA. We found that key CIA initiation events such as anti-collagen antibody production and inflammatory T cell proliferation were dependent on ICOS-PI3K signaling. Further, we found that ICOS-PI3K signaling promotes maintenance of established CIA. Additionally, we show that glycolysis inhibition ameliorates CIA, thus suggesting potential overlaps between ICOS-PI3K signaling and glucose metabolism in the pathophysiology of autoimmune arthritis. The initiation of autoimmunity depends on the action of autoimmune effector cells, but also on a failure of regulatory cells. Amongst the latter, T follicular regulatory (Tfr) cells are thought to prevent autoantibody production. In the second study presented in Chapter 3, we used regulatory T cell-specific ICOS knockout (ICOS FC) mice to investigate the impact of ICOS signaling in Tfr cells. We found that ICOS FC mice display a significant reduction in Tfr cell numbers, but no depletion of their T regulatory (Treg) precursors. Further, ICOS FC mice exhibited a rise of extraneous germinal center (GC) B cells numbers and increased production of anti-nuclear antibodies. We also observed disruptions of anti-viral responses and antigen-specific antibody production in ICOS FC mice, suggesting non-regulatory roles for Tfr cells. We performed single-cell transcriptome analysis of regulatory T cells and observed an accumulation of Tfr precursors in ICOS FC mice suggestive of a Treg-to-Tfr transition defect. Mechanistically, we found that ICOS participates in Tfr differentiation by regulating KLF2 and NFAT2, thereby contributing to the establishment of follicular T cell traits. In sum, we demonstrate that ICOS promotes the development of autoimmune arthritis by fostering inflammatory T cell responses in a PI3K-dependent manner. In addition, our work shows that ICOS can prevent autoantibody production by supporting Tfr differentiation. Thus, we contribute insights into the dual role of ICOS in the cellular and humoral arms of autoimmunity, providing important parameters to be considered when searching for novel therapeutic targets.