A visão de cores apresenta um papel muito importante para a sobrevivência e desenvolvimento de primatas. A capacidade de discriminar, visualmente, o alvo de um fundo apenas pela diferença de matiz pode ser o diferencial tanto para a busca de alimentos, como para a fuga de predadores. Estudos sobre a visão de cores auxiliam a fazer inferências sobre suas bases biológicas e utilidade funcional. O presente estudo buscou avaliar a discriminação de cores em primatas do gênero Alouatta (Bugio), por meio de uma adaptação do teste computadorizado Cambridge Colour Test (CCT) e do sequenciamento dos genes que codificam as opsinas, uma vez que por estudos anteriores inferia-se que eles pudessem apresentar visão tricromática, diferenciando-os dos outros platirrinos. Para este estudo foram utilizados 6 indivíduos do Centro Nacional de Primatas (CENP, Ananindeua, Pará, Brasil). O experimento comportamental objetivava determinar elipses de discriminação de cor para três fundos de diferentes cromaticidades do diagrama CIE 1976 uv, as quais serviram de parâmetro para a determinação do fenótipo dos indivíduos. A análise genética buscou identificar as variedades de opsinas. Dois indivíduos concluíram o teste comportamental com sucesso, um macho de Alouatta caraya e uma fêmea de Alouatta seniculus, ambos apresentando visão de cores tricromática. A análise molecular identificou a presença de dois alelos para comprimentos médios/longos da opsina. O potencial de tricromacia demonstrado na análise genética foi compatível com os resultados da análise comportamental que mostraram capacidade discriminativa tricromática. Neste trabalho abordamos os diversos aspectos desse estudo, tanto na modelagem dos animais quanto na importância desse achado / Color vision has a very important role in the survival and development of primates. The ability to visually discriminate the target of a background only by hue difference may be the difference for both search of food or escape from predators. Studies on color vision help to make inferences about their biological bases and functional utility. This study sought to evaluate the color discrimination in primates of the genus Alouatta (Howler monkey), through an adaptation of the computerized test Cambridge Colour Test (CCT) and the sequencing of the genes coding opsins. Through previous studies have inferred that they could present trichromatic vision, distinguishing them from other platyrrhines. Six subjects from the National Primate Center (CENP, Ananindeua, Pará, Brazil) were tested. The behavioral experiment aimed to determine color discrimination ellipses to three backgrounds of different chromaticity at CIE 1976 u\'v\' diagram, which served as a parameter for determining the phenotype of individuals and the genetic analysis sought to identify the varieties of opsins. Two individuals completed the test successfully one male and one female, both featuring trichromatic color vision. Two individuals successfully completed the behavioral test, one Alouatta caraya male and one Alouatta seniculus female, both presenting trichromatic color vision. Molecular analysis identified the presence of two alleles for medium/long lengths of opsin compatible with behavioral analysis. In this work we approach the various aspects of this study, both in the modeling of the animals and in the importance of this finding

A presente dissertação objetiva avaliar a visão de cores dos pacientes com EM (com e sem queixas visuais), através de teste psicofísicos e a percepção de formas e espaço, através de testes neuropsicológicos, além de investigar a existência de correlação entre essas funções. Participaram da pesquisa um total de 35 pacientes (9 M e 27 F) com o diagnóstico de EM, com idades entre 18 e 60 anos (média 36,84±10,49), e nível de educação variado, e 36 controles com faixa etária e nível escolar equivalente. Os pacientes possuíam acuidade visual 20/20, ou melhor e foram divididos em dois grupos: um com neurite óptica (NO n=52) outro sem NO (n=17). Foram utilizados os testes: Cambridge Color Test (CCT) fase trivector e elipse, Judgment of line orientation (JLO), visual form discrination (VFD), Bateria de percepção visual de objeto e espaço (VOSP), e as Escalas de depressão e ansiedade de Beck. Os resultados mostram diferenças entre grupos (anova OneWay), nos três eixos analisados (protan, deutan e tritan) e nas áreas das elipses em todos os grupos, (p0,005) indicando que a visão de cores está prejudicada em ambos os sistemas de oponência, sendo que a ocorrência de NO está associada a maior prejuízo, mas há perda da visão de cores mesmo na ausência de NO. Dos olhos sem NO 52% possui áreas das elipses normais (27/52), 27% possui deficiência difusa (14/52), 13% no eixo tritan (7/52), 6% no eixo protan (3/52) e 2% no deutan (1/52), indicando que a incidência de prejuízo difuso é maior entre estes pacientes. Dos olhos com NO, somente 18% (3/17) possui área das elipses dentro da normalidade, 34% possui deficiência no eixo deutan (6/17), 18% deficiência nos eixos protan e difusa (3/17) e 12% no eixo tritan (2/17), indicando que a incidência de prejuízo no eixo verde-vermelho é maior. Existe diferença estatística (kruskal-Wallis) nos testes VOSP2 entre os grupos CT x EM e CT x NO, no VOSP3 entre os grupos CT x NO e EM x NO e no VOSP8 entre os grupos CT x EM (p0,005), indicando que tanto a via de percepção de objeto, forma e cor (parvo), quanto à via de percepção de espaço estão comprometidas. Verificamos aumento da perda de visão de cores, com o aumento da idade, nos paciente com EM, nos eixos tritan (CT 1,53±0,27 EM 2,97±0,75) e deutan (CT 0,61±0,13 EM 1,35±0,53), indicando que a EM, intensifica a perda da visão de cores com o aumento da idade. Existe correlação entre o eixo tritan e os testes de percepção de objetos, VOSP3 e discriminação visual de formas, além do testes VOSP8 de percepção de espaço. No eixo deutan encontramos correlações com os testes decisão de objetos (VOSP3) e análise de cubos (p0,005). / To assess color vision, form and space perception in patients with clinical diagnosis of multiple sclerosis, with or without history of optic neuritis. Methods: We evaluated 35 patients (27F; 9M; mean age = 36.84±10.49 years) with diagnosis of multiple sclerosis. All patients had visual acuity between 0 and 0.1 logMAR and presented no alterations in a complete ophthalmologic exam. We compared the results with 36 control subjects, matched in age and school level. Color discrimination was performed with Cambridge Colour Test (CCT) along the protan, deutan and tritan cone isolation axes. All patients were evaluated monocularly in both eyes. In neuropsychological evaluation, for space and form perception, we used Judgment of Line Orientation (JLO), Visual Form Discrimination (VFD), Visual Object and Space Perception Test (VOSP), and the depression and anxiety of Beck Scales. Results: Color discrimination measured in both groups differed significantly from the control group in all Trivector axes and in the ellipses areas (p < 0.005). Eyes with history of optic neuritis were associated whit larger damage. MS patients presented a progressive color discrimination impairment with age (along the deutan and tritan axes) that was almost two times faster than controls, even in the absence of ON. In neuropsychological evaluation, MS group presented statistical differences from control group in VOSP silhouettes, objects and cubs tests (p0,005). Conclusions: Most of the central visual functions were impaired in patients with ME, who had no impairment in visual acuity. Episodes of optic neuritis are a factor that increases the chance of reduction in color discrimination. Correlations between color vision and neuropsychological evaluation suggest that losses in chromatic discrimination leads to damage in neuropsychological tests performance. These findings suggest that demyelinating diseases intensify the loss of colors vision with age and reduce sensitivity to color vision in both red-green and blue-yellow axes, implying impairment in both parvocellular and koniocellular visual pathways as well as dorsal and ventral pathways, according to results in neuropsychological tests. Key words: Multiple Sclerosis, Color Vision, Neuropsychological Tests

A visão de cores apresenta um papel muito importante para a sobrevivência e desenvolvimento de primatas. A capacidade de discriminar, visualmente, o alvo de um fundo apenas pela diferença de matiz pode ser o diferencial tanto para a busca de alimentos, como para a fuga de predadores. Estudos sobre a visão de cores auxiliam a fazer inferências sobre suas bases biológicas e utilidade funcional. O presente estudo buscou avaliar a discriminação de cores em primatas do gênero Alouatta (Bugio), por meio de uma adaptação do teste computadorizado Cambridge Colour Test (CCT) e do sequenciamento dos genes que codificam as opsinas, uma vez que por estudos anteriores inferia-se que eles pudessem apresentar visão tricromática, diferenciando-os dos outros platirrinos. Para este estudo foram utilizados 6 indivíduos do Centro Nacional de Primatas (CENP, Ananindeua, Pará, Brasil). O experimento comportamental objetivava determinar elipses de discriminação de cor para três fundos de diferentes cromaticidades do diagrama CIE 1976 uv, as quais serviram de parâmetro para a determinação do fenótipo dos indivíduos. A análise genética buscou identificar as variedades de opsinas. Dois indivíduos concluíram o teste comportamental com sucesso, um macho de Alouatta caraya e uma fêmea de Alouatta seniculus, ambos apresentando visão de cores tricromática. A análise molecular identificou a presença de dois alelos para comprimentos médios/longos da opsina. O potencial de tricromacia demonstrado na análise genética foi compatível com os resultados da análise comportamental que mostraram capacidade discriminativa tricromática. Neste trabalho abordamos os diversos aspectos desse estudo, tanto na modelagem dos animais quanto na importância desse achado / Color vision has a very important role in the survival and development of primates. The ability to visually discriminate the target of a background only by hue difference may be the difference for both search of food or escape from predators. Studies on color vision help to make inferences about their biological bases and functional utility. This study sought to evaluate the color discrimination in primates of the genus Alouatta (Howler monkey), through an adaptation of the computerized test Cambridge Colour Test (CCT) and the sequencing of the genes coding opsins. Through previous studies have inferred that they could present trichromatic vision, distinguishing them from other platyrrhines. Six subjects from the National Primate Center (CENP, Ananindeua, Pará, Brazil) were tested. The behavioral experiment aimed to determine color discrimination ellipses to three backgrounds of different chromaticity at CIE 1976 u\'v\' diagram, which served as a parameter for determining the phenotype of individuals and the genetic analysis sought to identify the varieties of opsins. Two individuals completed the test successfully one male and one female, both featuring trichromatic color vision. Two individuals successfully completed the behavioral test, one Alouatta caraya male and one Alouatta seniculus female, both presenting trichromatic color vision. Molecular analysis identified the presence of two alleles for medium/long lengths of opsin compatible with behavioral analysis. In this work we approach the various aspects of this study, both in the modeling of the animals and in the importance of this finding

Color vision deficiency (CVD) is the inability or limited ability to recognize colors and discriminate between them. A person with this condition perceives a narrower range of colors compared to a person with a normal color vision. A growing number of researchers are striving to improve the quality of life for CVD patients. Finding cure, making rectification equipment, providing simulation tools and applying color transformation methods are among the efforts being made by researchers in this field. In this study we concentrate on recoloring digital images in such a way that users with CVD, especially dichromats, perceive more details from the recolored images compared to the original image. The main focus is to give the CVD user a chance to find information within the picture which they could not perceive before. However, this transformed image might look strange or unnatural to users with normal color vision. During this color transformation process, the goal is to keep the overall contrast of the image constant while adjusting the colors that might cause confusion for the CVD user. First, each pixel in the RGB-image is converted to HSV color space in order to be able to control hue, saturation and intensity for each pixel and then safe and problematic hue ranges need to be found. The method for recognizing these ranges was inspired by a condition called “unilateral dichromacy” in which the patient has normal color vision in one eye and dichromacy in another. A special grid-like color card is designed, having constant saturation and intensity over the entire image, while the hue smoothly changes from one block to another to cover the entire hue range. The next step is to simulate the way this color card is perceived by a dichromatic user and finally to find the colors that are perceived identically from two images and the ones that differ too much. This part makes our method highly customizable and we can apply it to other types of CVD, even personalize it for the color vision of a specific observer. The resulting problematic colors need to be dealt with by shifting the hue or saturation based on some pre-defined rules. The results for the method have been evaluated both objectively and subjectively. First, we simulated a set of images as they would be perceived by a dichromat and compared them with simulated view of our transformed images. The results clearly show that our recolored images can eliminate a lot of confusion from user and convey more details. Moreover, an online questionnaire was created and 39 users with CVD confirmed that the transformed images allow them to perceive more information compared to the original images.

Complex functions of the basal ganglia are affected by numerous sensory and sensitive stimuli. In our studies, we investigated parameters of sense of smell and vision in neurodegenerative diseases of the basal ganglia - Parkinson's disease (PD) and Huntington's disease (HD). In the first study, we use Odourized Markers Test (OMT) to determine its applicability in PD patients, and to determine whether it distinguishes olfactory disorders between neurodegenerative and other disorders. Results show that OMT is applicable for PD patients and comparable to Sniffin' Sticks as it demonstrates gains of lower scores in PD patients compared to healthy subjects, but they do not differentiate other etiology of olfactory disorders. In the next study, we tested the pleasantness of odor stimulants in PD patients using New test of odor pleasantness (NTOP). We investigated suitability and validity of its use. We found that PD patients had lower odor rating score compared to healthy group correlated with Sniffin' Sticks and OMT. In the following study, we examined whether PD patients with visual hallucinations (PDH+) have structural retinal changes measured by optical coherence tomography (OCT) and functional retinal changes examined by 2,5% contrast sensitivity test compared to PD patients without hallucinations...