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The body of work hereby presented aims at better defining the specific mechanisms underlying cognitive control and flexibility, and to investigate the neural substrates that might support these dynamics. More specifically, the anterior cingulate (ACC), dorsolateral prefrontal (dlPFC) and frontopolar (FPC) cortices have been proposed to play a fundamental role in monitoring and detecting the presence of environmental contingencies that require the recruitment of cognitive control (such as competition between responses in the presence of conflicting information), implementing cognitive control, and supporting higher-order cognitive processing, respectively. This thesis investigates the effects of damage to these regions, and of interference with their activity, on these processes. It also argues for the importance of dissociating possible separate cognitive control components that might differently contribute to behavioural adjustments (such as caution and attention/task-relevant processing), and provides one of the first attempts to quantify them within the parameters of a mathematical model of choice response-time, the Linear Ballistic Accumulator (LBA). The results confirm the crucial role of the dlPFC in modulating behavioural adjustments, as both damage and interference with this region’s activity significantly affect measures of conflict-induced behavioural adaptation. It is hypothesized that dlPFC might drive behavioural adjustments by encoding recent conflict history and/or supporting the automatization of a newly advantageous behavioural strategy during the early stages after a change in conflict levels. When a task does not involve competition between a habit and instructed behaviour, lesions or interference with ACC’s activity do not appear to affect behaviour in a manner that is consistent with the classic conflict-monitoring framework. It is suggested that its role might be better described as a more general monitoring and confirmatory mechanism that evaluates both actual and potential outcomes of an action, in order to proactively guide adjustments away from contextually disadvantageous responses. Finally, lesions to the FPC do not affect abstract-rule integration, but do impair the early stages of acquisition of a new abstract rule, when a previously rewarded rule stops being rewarded, and specifically when acquisition is dependent on self-initiated exploration. This suggests a role for FPC in the evaluation of multiple concurrent options in order to aid the development of new behavioural strategies.

Background. Feelings of doubt and perseverative behaviours are key symptoms of obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) and have been linked to hyperactive error and conflict signals in the brain. While enhanced neural correlates of error monitoring have been robustly shown, far less is known about conflict processing and adaptation in OCD. Method. We examined event-related potentials during conflict processing in 70 patients with OCD and 70 matched healthy comparison participants, focusing on the stimulus-locked N2 elicited in a flanker task. Conflict adaptation was evaluated by analysing sequential adjustments in N2 and behaviour, i.e. current conflict effects as a function of preceding conflict. Results. Patients with OCD showed enhanced N2 amplitudes compared with healthy controls. Further, patients showed stronger conflict adaptation effects on reaction times and N2 amplitude. Thus, the effect of previous compatibility was larger in patients than in healthy participants as indicated by greater N2 adjustments in change trials (i.e. iC, cI). As a result of stronger conflict adaptation in patients, N2 amplitudes were comparable between groups in incompatible trials following incompatible trials. Conclusions. Larger N2 amplitudes and greater conflict adaptation in OCD point to enhanced conflict monitoring leading to increased recruitment of cognitive control in patients. This was most pronounced in change trials and was associated with stronger conflict adjustment in N2 and behaviour. Thus, hyperactive conflict monitoring in OCD may be beneficial in situations that require a high amount of control to resolve conflict, but may also reflect an effortful process that is linked to distress and symptoms of OCD.

The dynamic adaptation of cognitive control in the face of competition from conflicting response tendencies is one of the hallmarks of flexible human action control. Here, we suggest an alternative framework that places conflicttriggered control adaptation into the broader context of affect regulation. Specifically, we review evidence showing that (a) conflicts are inherently aversive, that (b) aversive stimuli in the absence of conflict also trigger behavioral adjustments, and, finally, that (c) conflict stimuli do trigger processes of affective counter-regulation. Together with recent findings showing that conflict-triggered control adaptation depends on the subjective experience of the conflict, we suggest that it is the subjective aversive conflict experience that originally motivates control adaptations. Such a view offers new perspectives for investigating and understanding intra- and interindividual differences in the regulation of cognitive control by differentiating between the individual sensitivity to experience and the individual ability to utilize the aversive signal.

Kognitive Kontrolle bezieht sich auf eine Vielzahl mentaler Fähigkeiten, die es uns erlauben im täglichen Leben zielgerichtete Entscheidungen zu treffen und sich flexibel an sich ständig ändernde Umweltanforderungen anzupassen. Das Ziel der vorliegenden Dissertation war es heraus zu finden, ob Kernfunktionen im Bereich der Konfliktüberwachung, Konfliktkontrolle, Fehlerverarbeitung und die daraus resultierenden Verhaltensanpassungen durch ein einheitliches Kontrollnetzwerk geleistet werden, oder ob spezifische Mechanismen die möglicherweise durch unabhängige neuronale Kontrollschleifen realisiert sind, die Flexibilität unserer Anpassungsfähigkeit steuern. Studie 1 und Studie 2 untersuchen sowohl generelle aus auch spezifische Aspekte der Konflikt- und Fehlerverarbeitung mit Hilfe klassischer Konfliktparadigmen und dem Einsatz von Zeit-Frequenz-analytischen Auswertungsmethoden. Studie 1 untersucht anhand 3 verschiedener Konfliktparadigmen (Simon, Flanker, NoGo) die Modulation der Theta Aktivität (4-8 Hz) und verortet diese grob innerhalb des medial frontalen Cortex (MFC), einer Struktur die durch eine Vielzahl von Studien als entscheidend bei der Konfliktverarbeitung angesehen wird. Die gefundene Theta Aktivität wurde in Studie 2 genutzt, um auch dynamische Netzwerkaktivierungen bei der Bearbeitung von Reiz- und Reaktionskonflikten zu beobachten. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass ein vermutetes Netzwerk bestehend aus MFC, lateralen präfrontalen Cortices und motorischen Arealen bei der Lösung von Reaktionskonflikten beteiligt ist. In Studie 3 wird eine Simon-Aufgabe, die innerhalb von belohnenden oder bestrafenden Kontexten durchgeführt wurde, genutzt um zu zeigen, dass Konflikt- und Fehlerverarbeitung differentiell durch die Kontextmanipulation beeinflusst werden. Entgegen voriger Annahmen scheinen mehrere neuronale Kontrollsysteme an der Lösung von Konflikten und daraus resultierenden Verhaltensanpassungen beteiligt zu sein. / Cognitive control refers to a set of mental abilities that allow us goal-directed behavior in everyday life and to flexibly adapt to permanently changing environmental demands. The goal of the present dissertation was to investigate whether core functions in the area of conflict monitoring, conflict control, error processing and behavioral adjustments caused by these processes are enabled via a unitary control network or whether specific mechanisms that are possibly realized via independent control loops are responsible for the flexibility of our adaptability. Study 1 and 2 investigate general as well as specific aspects of conflict and error processing by using classic conflict paradigms and time-frequency-analytic methods. Study 1 compares the modulation of theta activity (4-8 Hz) across 3 conflict paradigms (Simon, Flanker, NoGo) and roughly situates it within medial frontal cortex (MFC), a structure which has been characterized as crucial for conflict processing in manifold studies. The found theta activity has been used in study 2, to observe dynamic network activations during processing of stimulus and response conflicts. Data confirmed that a hypothesized network consisting of MFC, lateral prefrontal cortices and motor areas is involved in conflict resolution. In study 3 we used a Simon task which was executed either during a rewarding or a punishing context assessing the influence of motivational contexts on conflict adaptation revealing that conflict and error processing were influenced differentially by the context manipulation. Against previous assumptions, several neuronal control systems seem to be engaged during conflict resolution and resulting behavioral adjustments.

Objective: Conflict monitoring is well known to be modulated by context. This is known as the Gratton effect, meaning that the degree of interference is smaller when a stimulus–response conflict had been encountered previously. It is unclear to what extent these processes are changed in ADHD. Method: Children with ADHD (combined subtype) and healthy controls performed a modified version of the sequence flanker task. Results: Patients with ADHD made significantly more errors than healthy controls, indicating general performance deficits. However, there were no differences regarding reaction times, indicating an intact Gratton effect in ADHD. These results were supported by Bayesian statistics. Conclusion: The results suggest that the ability to take contextual information into account during conflict monitoring is preserved in patients with ADHD despite this disorder being associated with changes in executive control functions overall. These findings are discussed in light of different theoretical accounts on contextual modulations of conflict monitoring. (J. of Att. Dis. 2020; 24(11) 1503-1510)

L'objectif de la présente thèse de doctorat était d'étudier la relation entre le bilinguisme et le contrôle exécutif général. Les recherches sur le bilinguisme en psycholinguistique ont montré que la co-activation permanente des langues ainsi que la nécessité de s'adapter à l'environnement linguistique peuvent produire un renforcement des capacités de contrôle chez les bilingues. Toutefois, la nature des processus de contrôle impliqués reste controversée. Trois études ont examiné cette question au niveau neuronal chez des bilingues tardifs français-allemand. Différentes tâches expérimentales mettant en jeu un conflit cognitif ont été utilisées, les unes impliquant une composante linguistique (Stroop et amorçage négatif), et une autre impliquant une composante motrice (antisaccades). Les principaux résultats sont les suivants : (1) Renforcement des processus de gestion de conflits et d'inhibition chez les bilingues, (2) Interaction entre le cortex cingulaire antérieur et le cortex préfrontal dans le contrôle cognitif plus efficace chez les bilingues que chez les monolingues et (3) Modulation du contrôle exécutif par divers facteurs linguistiques individuels inhérents au bilinguisme. Prises dans leur ensemble, ces observations corroborent l'hypothèse d'une implication de processus de contrôle général dans le bilinguisme et révèlent des capacités d'adaptation neuroplastique en fonction des contraintes linguistiques. / The present doctoral thesis aimed to study the relation between bilingualism and domain-general executive control. Psycholinguistic research on bilingualism has shown that the sustained co-activation of languages and the need to adapt to the linguistic environment lead to a reinforcement of control abilities in bilinguals. However, the nature of domain-general executive control involvement in multiple language use is a matter of debate. Three studies were conducted in order to investigate this issue at the neuronal level in French-German late bilinguals. Different experimental tasks involving a cognitive conflict were used, certain of them involving a linguistic component (Stroop and negative priming) and the other one involving a motoric component (antisaccade). The main findings collected in the present doctoral thesis showed (1) the behavioral and neurophysiological evidence of enhanced conflict monitoring and inhibition in bilinguals, (2) the more efficient dynamic interplay between the anterior cingulate cortex and the prefrontal cortex in executive control in bilinguals in comparison with monolinguals, and (3) a modulation of executive control by the individual linguistic factors inherent to bilingualism. Taken together, the present findings support psycholinguistic theories postulating domain-general control involvement in bilingualism and reveal the capacity of neuroplastic adaptation as a function of linguistic constraints.

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