Student Number : 9903022H MSc Dissertation School of Chemistry Faculty of Science / Cancer is characterised by the unconstrained growth of cancerous cells, which damages the healthy cells and ultimately the tissue of the host. Chemotherapy forms an essential component in the treatment of this disease, however most anti-tumour drugs suffer from various deficiencies, e.g. increased toxicity, reduced serum half life and poor water solubility. The focus of this project was to address some of these deficiencies by conjugating selected drugs to a water-soluble polymeric carrier. Selected water-soluble biodegradable carriers were synthesized. Copolyaspartamides, polyamidoamines and polyamides were obtained by condensation polymerisation, Michéal–type addition polymerisation and ester amine base-catalysed polymerisation. The nascent water soluble polymers were used to conjugate platinum, ferrocene and tetramethylmelamine derivative, respectively. The percentage drug in each polymer drug conjugate was determined by considering the mass of the drug in the conjugate as a percentage of the total mass of the drug-polymer conjugate. Platinum was linked to the carrier via polymer attached amine, carboxyl and hydroxyl ligands. Platinum content of the conjugates ranged from 7 to 11 % by mass. The ferrocenylation agent, 4-ferrocenylbutanoic acid, and the tetramethylmelamine derivative, 3-(4,6-bis(N,N-dimethylamino)-1,3,5-triazacyclohexatrien-2-yl) propanoic acid was polymer-bound by amidation reactions. Iron content of the ferrocence conjugated ranged from 2 to 12 % by mass. While the drug content based on tetramethylmelamine in the 3-(4,6-bis[N,N-dimethylamino]-1,3,5-triazacyclohexatrien-2-yl) propanoic acid polymer conjugate ranged from 8.4 to 8.6 % by mass. There was a preliminary attempt to coconjugate both, 4-ferrocenylbutanoic acid and 3-(4,6-bis[N,N-dimethylamino]-1,3,5- triazacyclohexatrien-2-yl) propanoic acid to the same polymer. This co-conjugate contained 2.9 % iron and 3.4 % tetramethylmelamine by mass.

This thesis describes the design and synthesis of small molecule derivatives and their polypeptide conjugates as high affinity binders for proteins: the D-dimer protein (D-dimer), a biomarker for diagnosis of thromboembolic diseases; human myeloperoxidase (MPO), a biomarker for cardiovascular diseases; and chitinases, potential targets for asthma therapy. The interactions between the synthetic binder molecules and those proteins were evaluated by surface plasmon resonance (SPR) biosensor analysis and fluorescence spectroscopy. Competition SPR experiments or other methods proved that the small molecule components of the binder molecules were critical for binding and specifically bound to the original binding site of small molecules. The binder molecules consisted of a 42-residue helix-loop-helix polypeptide conjugated to a small molecule via aliphatic spacers of suitable length. The small molecules could be any type of moderately binding structure. In the binder development for the D-dimer, the tetrapeptide GPRP with a dissociation constant Kd of 25 μM was used and the affinity of 4C15L8GPRP obtained was estimated to be approximately 3 nM. In the binder development for MPO, salicylhydroxamic acid (SHA) with Kd of 2 μM was used and the affinity of 4C37L34C11SHA obtained was estimated to be approximately 0.4 nM. In the binder development for chitinases, a theobromine derivative (pentoxifylline) with a Kd of 43±10 μM was used and the affinity of 4C37L34-P obtained was estimated to be considerably higher than that of pentoxifylline. The binder molecules were identified from a 16-membered pool of candidates obtained by conjugating the small molecules to each member of a set of 16 designed polypeptides. The affinities were greatly enhanced by 2-3 orders of magnitude, compared to the small molecule. The polypeptides did not bind to the proteins with measurable affinities. The discovery of these new synthetic binders for protein targets can pave the way to diagnostic tests in vivo or in vitro, independent of antibodies.

published_or_final_version / Medical Sciences / Master / Master of Medical Sciences

Mammalian γ-glutamyltransferase (GGT) is a glycoprotein consisting of two subunits - a light chain and a heavy chain. The light chain contains the catalytic activity; the heavy chain anchors the protein to the membrane. GGT catalyzes the hydrolysis of the γ-glutamyl isopeptide bond of glutathione conjugates, releasing glutamic acid, or the transfer of the γ-glutamyl group to an acceptor substrate. The specificity of the enzyme for xenobiotic donor substrates has not been fully characterized. The transpeptidation activity of bovine kidney GGT was measured with glycylglycine as acceptor substrate and several glutathione conjugate donor substrates, representative of detoxication products of polycyclic aromatic xenobiotics. HPLC separation with UV detection was used for quantitation. The commonly-used chromogenic donor substrate γ-glutamyl-p-nitroanilide was also tested. Michaelis constants (Km) were obtained for γ-glutamyl-p-nitroanilide (0.74 mM), 4-nitrobenzyl glutathione (0.075 mM), 2,4-dinitrophenyl glutathione (0.30 mM), 4-methylbiphenylyl glutathione (0.12 mM), 1-menaphthyl glutathione (0.23 mM), and 9-methylanthracenyl glutathione (0.22 mM), indicating that enzyme activity is affected, but not strongly, by the nature of the S-substituent attached to glutathione, and there is a slight trend of higher Km values with bulkier aromatic S-substituents.

abstract: Small molecules have proven to be very important tools for exploration of biological systems including diagnosis and treatment of lethal diseases like cancer. Fluorescent probes have been extensively used to further amplify the utilization of small molecules. The manipulation of naturally occurring biological targets with the help of synthetic compounds is the focus of the work described in this thesis. Bleomycins (BLMs) are a class of water soluble, glycopeptide-derived antitumor antibiotics consisting of a structurally complicated unnatural hexapeptide and a disaccharide, clinically used as an anticancer chemotherapeutic agent at an exceptionally low therapeutic dose. The efficiency of BLM is likely achieved both by selective localization within tumor cells and selective binding to DNA followed by efficient double-strand cleavage. The disaccharide moiety is responsible for the tumor cell targeting properties of BLM. A recent study showed that both BLM and its disaccharide, conjugated to the cyanine dye Cy5**, bound selectively to cancer cells. Thus, the disaccharide moiety alone recapitulates the tumor cell targeting properties of BLM. Work presented here describes the synthesis of the fluorescent carbohydrate conjugates. A number of dye-labeled modified disaccharides and monosaccharides were synthesized to study the nature of the participation of the carbamoyl moiety in the mechanism of tumor cell recognition and uptake by BLM saccharides. It was demonstrated that the carbamoylmannose moiety of BLM is the smallest structural entity capable for the cellular targeting and internalization, and the carbamoyl functionality is indispensible for tumor cell targeting. It was also confirmed that BLM is a modular molecule, composed of a tumor cell targeting moiety (the saccharide) attached to a cytotoxic DNA cleaving domain (the BLM aglycone). These finding encouraged us to further synthesize carbohydrate probes for PET imaging and to conjugate the saccharide moiety with cytotoxins for targeted delivery to tumor cells. The misacylated suppressor tRNA technique has enabled the site-specific incorporation of noncanonical amino acids into proteins. The focus of the present work was the synthesis of unnatural lysine analogues with nucleophilic properties for incorporation at position 72 of the lyase domain of human DNA polymerase beta, a multifunctional enzyme with dRP lyase and polymerase activity. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Chemistry 2014

No description available.

The conjugation of a small organic molecule to synthetic polypeptides from a designed set has been shown to give rise to binders with high affinity and selectivity for the phosphorylated model proteins α-casein and β-casein but not for ovoalbumin. The small organic molecule that was used for this purpose is comprised of two di-(2-picolyl)amine groups assembled on a dimethylphenyl scaffold, and is capable of complexing two Zn2+ ions to form chelates that bind the phosphate ion. The designed polypeptides used for binder construction have no precedence in nature and do not show any prior selectivity favouring any single protein. The polypeptide conjugate binders showed high affinity towards the model protein α-casein, the binder molecule 4C15L8-PP1 bound α-casein with a dissociation constant KD of 17 nM, although the di-(2-picolyl) amine based chelate in the presence of Zn2+ bound phosphate ion with dissociation constants in the low mM range. The observed affinity is due to interactions between the Zn2+ chelate and the phosphate groups of α-casein and also to interactions between the polypeptide scaffold and α-casein. The binder was found to selectively extract α-casein from buffer, bovine milk and human serum spiked with α-casein. The flexible construction of the binder permits for flexible modifications like attachment of fluorophores for titrations and quantifications. The binders were shown to efficiently capture α-casein from human serum when immobilized on solid support in a continuous flow system and to release the captured α-casein upon a simple change of pH using 0.1% acqueous trifluoroacetica acid. The developed technology brings new opportunities in investigating posttranslational phosphorylation events that are involved in signaling cascades and triggering many biologically relevant functions. A new chemical linker technology has also been developed for the purpose of conjugating biomolecules taking advantage of amino groups for the conjugation. By combining two esters with different reactivities, separated by an aliphatic chain, a molecular tool was developed that allows for controlled conjugation of biomolecules. The two esters react at different rates and can therefore be separated and allowed to react under different conditions in each step, thereby allowing for selective linkage formation between the subunits. The size of the spacer can be varied by selecting the appropriate dicarboxylic acid. The developed technology was shown to provide specificity in heteroconjugate formation in the assembly of a variety of heteroconjugates where polypeptides were combined with other peptides, carbohydrates and proteins.

Secoisolariciresinol (SECO) is the major lignan present in flaxseed, but unlike the structurally related lignan nordihydroguaiaretic acid, it is not associated with toxicity. The major phase I metabolite of SECO is lariciresinol, likely formed as a result of para-quinone methide (p-QM) formation followed by an intramolecular cyclization, thereby minimizing any toxicity associated with the p-QM. Four analogues of SECO were used to investigate substituent effects on lignan metabolism and formation of reactive quinones. HPLC methods were developed for analysis of SECO analogues and their metabolites. The stability of SECO analogues (1 mM) in a 50 mM Na2HPO4 buffer at pH 6.0 and 7.4 were quantified. Enzymatic oxidation experiments using mushroom tyrosinase and microsomes harvested from male Sprague-Dawley rats were performed with and without a GSH trapping system. Mass spectrometry and LC-MS were used to identify metabolites. Life Technologies was contracted to perform IC50 inhibition assays on SECO and the SECO analogues against CYP3A4, CYP3A5, CYP2C9 and CYP2C19 cytochrome P450 isoforms. All SECO analogues were stable at pH 6.0. SECO-2 was stable at pH 7.4 but SECO-1, -3 and -4 were unstable at pH 7.4. Autoxidation of SECO -1, -3 and -4 were 1st order reactions with t1/2 of 9.0 h, 1.7 h and 7.0 h respectively. Mushroom tyrosinase oxidations were performed to generate ortho-quinone standards. SECO-1 -3 and -4 were oxidized by mushroom tyrosinase but SECO-2 was not. Trapping with GSH produces aromatic ring conjugates for SECO-1, -3, -4. Results from microsomal oxidations for SECO-1, -3 and -4 are consistent with these standards. SECO-2 was metabolized by a microsomal system to produce a benzyl GSH adduct. Dealkylation products were also observed. All SECO analogues formed quinones but interestingly, GSH conjugation was competitive with intramolecular cyclization. All cytochrome P450 isoforms were inhibited by every analogue tested to varying degrees, a potential cause of toxicity concerns. Quinones are known to cause toxicity in vivo, including cytotoxicity, immunotoxicity, and carcinogenesis. Our results suggest that since the phenol and catechol lignans form GSH adducts in addition to intramolecular cyclization products, this class of lignans have the potential to cause toxicity.

The purpose of this investigation has been to determine the characteristics of the immune response to 1-fluoro-2,4-dinitrobenzene when this hapten is conjugated with various types of proteins.

Ο καρκίνος, αποτελεί στις μέρες μας μία από τις πιο συνήθεις ασθένειες καθότι προσβάλει ένα μεγάλο μέρος του παγκόσμιου πληθυσμού, ανεξαρτήτου ηλικίας και γι αυτό το λόγο, η θεραπεία του αποτελεί μία από τις μεγαλύτερες προκλήσεις της επιστημονικής κοινότητας. Η χορήγηση διαφόρων φαρμάκων έως τώρα, για την αντιμετώπισή του, έχει σαν αποτέλεσμα την προσβολή τόσο των καρκινικών, όσο και των υγειών κυττάρων. Κατά συνέπεια, προκαλούνται ποικίλες παρενέργειες στον ανθρώπινο οργανισμό, ορισμένες πολύ σοβαρές που δεν επιτρέπουν την χορήγηση θεραπευτικών δόσεων. Η νανοτεχνολογία μπαίνει δυναμικά στη μάχη κατά του καρκίνου. Ο σχεδιασμός και η χρήση συστημάτων με μέγεθος στην νανοκλίμακα, προσφέρει νέους τρόπους για τον εντοπισμό, τη διάγνωση και τη θεραπεία του καρκίνου από τα πρώτα κιόλας στάδια και με ελάχιστες παρενέργειες. Τα νανοσωματίδια μακράς κυκλοφορίας (stealth nanoparticles) παρέχουν ένα νέο τρόπο χορήγησης των αντικαρκινικών φαρμάκων, λειτουργώντας ως φορείς που εξαγγειώνονται στην περιοχή του όγκου, επιτρέποντας με αυτόν τον τρόπο την εκλεκτική διάθεση του φαρμάκου που περιέχουν στα καρκινικά κύτταρα. Τα σωματίδια αυτά, έχουν την ικανότητα να τροποποιούνται κατάλληλα, ώστε να είναι βιοσυμβατά και να μπορούν να προσκολλούνται στα καρκινικά κύτταρα ή στο μικροπεριβάλλον τους, λειτουργώντας έτσι σαν φορείς στη στοχευμένη χορήγηση αντικαρκινικών φαρμάκων, μειώνοντας την τοξικότητα στους φυσιολογικούς ιστούς. Οι νανοφορείς που έχουν μελετηθεί μέχρι σήμερα, εμφανίζουν σημαντικά προβλήματα, όπως δομική αστάθεια, δομική ετερογένεια και ελλειπή έλεγχο μεγέθους και σχήματος. Κατά συνέπεια, υπάρχει μία συνεχής ανάγκη ανάπτυξης νέων νανοφορέων ή βελτιστοποίηση των ήδη μελετημένων, προκειμένου να μπορούν να αξιοποιηθούν στην κλινική πράξη. Τα φουλλερένια (C60), έχουν κινήσει το ενδιαφέρον των επιστημόνων σε πολλούς τομείς της έρευνας, συμπεριλαμβανομένου της θεραπείας κατά του καρκίνου. Η βιολογική τους σταθερότητα, το μικρό μέγεθος και η ικανότητα πρόσδεσης σε αυτά διαφόρων παραγόντων, όπως πολυμερή, βιοδραστικές ουσίες και μονάδες στόχευσης τα κατέστησε ικανά να λειτουργούν σαν νανοφορείς στη στοχευμένη χορήγηση φαρμάκων. Το μόνο τους μειονέκτημα είναι η μειωμένη διαλυτότητά τους στο νερό, το οποίο μπορεί να αντιμετωπιστεί με την πρόσδεση σε αυτά υδρόφιλων πολυμερών, όπως είναι η πολυαιθυλενογλυκόλη (PEG). Στην παρούσα εργασία, παρουσιάζονται τα αποτελέσματα της σύνθεσης ενός συζεύγματος πεγκυλιωμένου μορίου φουλλερενίου (C60) με το αντικαρκινικό φάρμακο δοξορουμπικίνη, καθώς και η in vitro αξιολόγηση του τελικού προϊόντος. Στόχος είναι η αύξηση της αποτελεσματικότητας και η μείωση της τοξικότητας του φαρμάκου, μέσω στοχευμένης μεταφοράς στον καρκινικό όγκο. Ένα πεγκυλιωμένο σύζευγμα φουλλερενίου (C60) με δύο μόρια δοξορουμπικίνης (DOX2-C60-PEG, ένωση 4), συντέθηκε επιτυχώς και χαρακτηρίστηκε πλήρως μέσω 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR, IR, UV και TGA. Η δραστικότητα του τελικού προϊόντος, καθώς και ενός ήδη συντεθέντος συζεύγματος με ένα μόριο φαρμάκου DOX-C60-PEG (ένωση 2b), αλλά και του ενδιαμέσου συζεύγματος C60-PEG (ένωση 7) και της υδροχλωρικής δοξορουμπικίνης (DOX•HCl), ενάντια στον καρκίνο ελέγχθηκε in vitro σε καρκινικές σειρές κυττάρων μαστού MCF-7. Τα συζεύγματα DOX2-C60-PEG (4) και DOX-C60-PEG (2b) εμφάνισαν ικανοποιητική δράση αναστολής του πολλαπλασιασμού των κυττάρων, συγκρίσιμη με αυτήν του ελεύθερου φαρμάκου, ύστερα από σχετικά μακρό χρόνο επώασης. Μελέτη εντοπισμού της DOX χρησιμοποιώντας μικροσκοπία φθορισμού έδειξε ότι το φάρμακο στην περίπτωση των συζευγμάτων εντοπίζεται πολύ πιο αργά στο πυρήνα του κυττάρου, όπου και μπορεί να εξασκήσει φαρμακολογική του δράση, σε σύγκριση με την ελεύθερη DΟΧ. Αυτό σε συνδυασμό με την αργή απελευθέρωση του φαρμάκου από τα συζεύγματα, όπως έδειξαν πειράματα αποδέσμευσης σε προϊόν λύσης των MCF-7 καρκινικών κυττάρων, ερμηνεύει την συγκριτικά αργή εμφάνιση δράσης στην περίπτωση των συζευγμάτων. Συμπερασματικά στην εργασία συντέθηκαν επιτυχώς φουλλερενικά συζεύγματα δοξορουμπικίνης τα οποία είχαν ικανοποιητική αντικαρκινική δραστικότητα έναντι καρκινικών κυττάρων ανθρώπινης καρκινικής σειράς. τα αποτελέσματα δικαιολογούν περαιτέρω μελέτες εφαρμογής του φουλλερενίου ως νανοφορέα για την χορήγηση τόσο δοξορουμπικίνης, όσο και άλλων φαρμάκων κατά του καρκίνου. / Until now, the administration of various drugs for its cure, affect both cancer and normal cells. Thus, many serious side effects are caused on the human body, which do not permit the administration of therapeutic doses of potent anticancer drugs. Nanotechnology has entered dynamically”in the battle” against cancer. The design and the use of multifunctional nanoparticulte systems, provides new ways to detect, diagnose and treat cancer in the earliest stages and with minimal side effects. They can extravagate at tumor site, allowing direct drug access selectively to cancer cells. These particles have the capacity to be suitably modified in order to be biocompatible and can be attached to tumor cells or their microenvironment, acting as carriers in targeted delivery of anticancer drugs, reducing toxicity to normal tissues. Drug nanocarriers explored to date, suffer from inherent limitations, including instability, structural heterogeneity and poor control over size and shape. Therefore, there is a continuing need to produce new or optimized, already studied nanocarriers, in order to render possible the use of such advanced nanomedicines in the clinic. Fullerenes (C60), have attracted considerable interest in many fields of research, including the treatment of cancer. Because of their biological stability, their small size, and their ability to be suitably modified, attaching on them biological modifiers and drugs, they can be used as nanocarriers in targeted drug delivery. The main drawback of these carbon particles with regard to their biomedical applications, is their poor solubility to water. We can overcome this problem by attaching on fullerene particles hydrophilic polymers, such as polyethylene glycol (PEG). In the present work, the results of the synthesis and the in vitro biological evaluation of a pegylated fullerene conjugate with the potent anticancer drug Doxorubicin are represented. The main goal is to increase efficacy and reduce toxicity of doxorubicin, through targeted delivery to tumors, by conjugating the drug to pegylated fullerenes. A pegylated fullerene-doxorubicin conjugate with two molecules of drug per fullerene particle (DOX2-C60-PEG, compound 4) has successfully been synthesized and was fully characterized by 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR, IR, UV and TGA. The anticancer activity of conjugates DOX2-C60-PEG (4), DOX-C60-PEG (compound 2b, with one DOX molecule per fullerene particle), and conjugate C60-PEG (control compound 7) and doxorubicin hydrochloride ((DOX•HCl), was evaluated in MCF-7 cancer cells lines. The fullerene-doxorubicin conjugates (2b, 4) exhibited satisfactory anticancer activity (inhibiting cancer cells proliferation), which became comparable to the activity of free drug at relatively long incubation times. In accordance with the relatively slow effect of DOX-C60-PEG conjugates on cells viability, DOX localization studies using fluorescence microscopy indicated that the drug is much more slowly localized in cell nucleus, where the drug can exert its pharmacological action, in the case of conjugates compared to free DOX. In conclusion pegylated fullerene-doxorubicin conjugates were successfully synthesized. These DOX-C60-PEG conjugates exhibited comparable, but with a delayed onset, to free DOX anticancer activity against human cancer cell lines. The results obtained justify further investigation of the potential of these conjugates as anticancer nanomedicines.