A presente pesquisa abordou o estudo em escala real do tratamento de lixiviado de aterro sanitário em um sistema composto por dois filtros anaeróbios seguidos de dois banhados construídos. O trabalho foi desenvolvido na estação de tratamento de lixiviado do aterro sanitário pertencente à Central de Resíduos do Recreio, localizada em Minas do Leão/RS. Pretendeu-se verificar a eficiência do sistema na remoção de matéria orgânica e de nitrogênio amoniacal. A fase 1 da pesquisa, que avaliou o desempenho dos filtros anaeróbios quando operados em série, indicou que a quase totalidade da remoção de matéria orgânica facilmente biodegradável ocorreu no primeiro filtro, evidenciando que, para o tratamento do lixiviado em questão, não é interessante a utilização de dois filtros anaeróbios de fluxo ascendente semelhantes em série. A fase 2 avaliou o desempenho dos filtros anaeróbios operados em paralelo e dos banhados construídos. Foi possível concluir-se que: filtros anaeróbios de fluxo ascendente são excelente alternativa para o tratamento de lixiviado de aterro sanitário, pois podem viabilizar remoções de matéria orgânica superiores a 50%; banhados construídos representam uma ecotecnologia interessante para o complemento do tratamento de lixiviado, pois podem viabilizar elevadas remoções de N-amoniacal. / This study discussed the sanitary landfill leachate treatment in a full scale system composed by two upflow anaerobic filters followed by two constructed wetlands. The research was developed at the landfill leachate treatment station owned by Recreio Central Waste, located in Minas do Leão/RS. The objective of the study was to verify the efficiency of the system in the removal of organic matter and ammonia nitrogen. The phase 1 of the study, which evaluated the performance of anaerobic filters when operated in series, indicated that almost all of the removal of organic matter readily biodegradable occurred in the first filter, showing that, for the treatment of leachate concerned, it is not interesting the use of two similar upflow anaerobic filters in series. The phase 2 assessed the performance of the anaerobic filters, operated in parallel, and the constructed wetlands. It could be concluded that: upflow anaerobic filters are excellent alternative for the sanitary landfill leachate treatment, as they may facilitate removal of organic matter greater than 50%; constructed wetlands represent an interesting eco-technology to complement the leachate treatment, which can enable high removals of N-ammonia.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-07-29T15:01:47Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertacao Douglas Pereira da Silva Pitaluga.pdf: 5429888 bytes, checksum: 32eb4d8cd9077124fcd7f2e8207c5e41 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011-06-28 / The present study had the goal of assessing the efficiency and behavior of three substrates in the treatment of sanitary sewage in a root zone system. Specifically the objectives were to assess the behavior of the washed sand, gravel # 0 and gravel # 1 substrates and relate their efficacies in a root zone system with sub-superficial horizontal flow preceded by a septic tank and an anaerobic filter in the treatment of a sewage coming from one university unit. The repetitions of raw sewage constituted of five simple samples and five composed samples. The repetitions of the effluent of each stage of the treatment constituted of nineteen simple samples. All the samples were performed fortnightly and submitted to laboratorial analysis. Were assessed parameters the BOD, DO, COD, thermotolerant coliforms, pH, total phosphorus, Kjeldahl total nitrogen, ammoniacal nitrogen, oil and grease, total solids, total fixed solids and suspended solids. The experimental system of sewage treatment was set up at the Civil Engineering College, located at Campus I of the Federal University of Goiás, in the east region of the city of Goiânia Goiás, Brazil, which constituted of a septic tank and an anaerobic filter, followed by three independent units of root zones. Each unit of the root zones received the flow of 180 L d-1, which corresponds to the area of a treatment station of 3 m2 per inhabitant. The treatment in these units occurred simultaneously. After thirty days from the beginning of the sewage application in the root zones, the collection of the samples to the analysis of the effluent and affluent quality were started. Considering the plant evapotranspiration, the results were analyzed by the tool Statistical Analysis System SAS, performing F tests and Tukey Kramer test with a 5% probability. The percentage efficacies of the three substrates used were similar. There hasn t been any significant difference between the efficacies of the treatments in the removal of the attributes: COD, Kjeldahl total nitrogen, ammoniacal nitrogen, oil and grease. The treatment with washed sand substrate was more efficient in the removal of BOD and total phosphorous. The gravel # 0 was more efficient in the removal of thermotolerant coliforms, total solids and fixed total solids, and gravel # 1 was more efficient in the removal of suspended solids. After 18 months the system started working, the channel filled with washed sand colmatated. / O presente estudo teve como objetivo avaliar a eficiência e o comportamento de três substratos no tratamento de esgoto sanitário, num sistema do tipo zona de raízes. De modo específico, objetivou-se avaliar o comportamento dos substratos areia lavada, brita # 0 e brita # 1 e relacionar suas eficiências num sistema do tipo zona de raízes de fluxo sub-superficial horizontal, precedido de tanque séptico e filtro anaeróbio, no tratamento do esgoto gerado numa unidade universitária. As repetições do esgoto bruto foram constituídas por cinco amostragens compostas e cinco amostragens simples. Já as repetições do efluente de cada etapa do tratamento foram constituídas por dezenove amostragens simples. Todas as amostragens foram realizadas quinzenalmente e submetidas a análises laboratoriais. Foram avaliados os parâmetros de DBO, OD, DQO, coliformes termotolerantes, pH, óleos e graxas, fósforo total, nitrogênio total Kjeldahl, nitrogênio amoniacal, sólidos totais, sólidos totais fixos e sólidos suspensos. O sistema experimental de tratamento de esgotos foi implantado na Escola de Engenharias, localizada no Campus I da Universidade Federal de Goiás (UFG), região Leste da cidade de Goiânia-GO e constituiu-se de um tanque séptico e um filtro anaeróbio, seguidos por três unidades de zona de raízes independentes. Cada unidade de zona de raízes recebeu uma vazão de 180 L d-1, correspondente a uma área de sistema zona de raízes de 3 m2 por habitante. O tratamento nestas unidades ocorreu de forma simultânea. Após trinta dias do início da aplicação de esgoto nas zonas de raízes, iniciaram-se as amostragens para a análise da qualidade do afluente e dos efluentes. Considerando a evapotranspiração das plantas, os resultados foram analisados pela ferramenta Statistical Analysis System SAS, realizando os Testes F e de Tukey Kramer, a 5% de probabilidade. As eficiências percentuais dos três substratos utilizados foram semelhantes. Não houve diferença significativa entre as eficiências dos tratamentos na remoção dos atributos: DQO, nitrogênio total Kjeldahl, nitrogênio amoniacal e óleos e graxas. O tratamento com substrato areia lavada foi mais eficiente na remoção de: DBO e fósforo total; o substrato brita # 0 foi mais eficiente na remoção de coliformes termotolerantes, sólidos totais e sólidos totais fixos, e a brita # 1 foi mais eficiente na redução dos sólidos suspensos. Após 18 meses do início de funcionamento do sistema o leito preenchido com areia lavada colmatou.

A redução dos impactos da poluição difusa é ainda pouco explorada no Brasil, havendo ausência de critérios legais quanto à sua mitigação. Contudo, na esfera científica o seu impacto é reconhecido. Seguindo evidências de que há uma carência no tratamento de poluição difusa no país, este trabalho se propõe a analisar wetlands construídas como medidas de controle de poluição difusa, através de modelagens, para 4 áreas na bacia do córrego do Mineirinho. A exploração dessa proposta se deu por três abordagens paralelas. Na primeira, as wetlands foram projetadas para tratar o escoamento superficial de uma chuva crítica, de 61 minutos. Na segunda abordagem, foi utilizada uma chuva crítica de 24 horas de duração. Na terceira, utilizou-se o índice de precipitação anual. O escoamento superficial foi calculado conforme os coeficientes de runoff. Atribuíram-se valores de concentrações médias de evento para DBO e Fósforo aos tipos de uso e ocupação, obtendo-se concentrações médias nas águas pluviais a serem tratadas. O modelo P-k-C* foi empregado na primeira e terceira abordagens, para dimensionar os sistemas com base no desempenho de remoção de cargas. Os resultados obtidos demonstraram a aptidão dos sistemas em reduzir cargas e/ou concentrações na bacia, apresentando como principal limitação técnica o espaço demandado para sua implantação. Houve influência majoritária da infiltração na remoção de cargas, que agiu em conjunto com o decaimento de poluentes ao longo dos sistemas. Na primeira abordagem, o modelo P-k-C* apresentou limitações em prever o desempenho dos sistemas por não comportar vazões variáveis. A segunda abordagem foi a mais simples, baseada apenas no armazenamento do evento crítico, entretanto, há uma carência de relações empíricas traçadas experimentalmente para prever seu desempenho. A terceira abordagem se mostrou a mais adequada ao modelo P-k-C*, podendo ser aprimorada de duas formas: adaptações nas constantes cinéticas ou vazões equivalentes, a fim de descrever uma média anual de desempenho. Concluiu-se que wetlands construídas demonstram potencial para o tratamento de poluição difusa, porém há uma necessidade de estudos a fim de se adaptar as ferramentas de modelagem disponíveis. / Nonpoint source pollutions impacts are still a rarely explored theme in Brazil, in which there are no legal criteria for its treatment. Although, in the scientific sphere its impacts are well known. Following evidence that there is a lack of nonpoint source pollution treatment in Brazil, this study proposes to analyze constructed wetlands as a nonpoint source pollution control measure, through modelling, for four different areas in the Mineirinho stream watershed. This proposal was explored through three different approaches. At first, the wetlands were designed to threat a critic rainfall for flood estimation, with detailed hydrographs. On the second approach, the wetlands were design to fully contain a 24-hour critic rainfall. On the third approach, the wetlands were designed to treat the average annual rainfall. The runoff volumes were estimated by runoff coefficients, and event mean concentrations for BOD and TP were assigned to each source area, resulting in the stormwater quality estimation. The P-k-C* model was applied to calculate systems performance on the first and third approaches. The results showed the aptitude of the systems for reducing loads and concentrations in the watershed, although mainly limited by the availability of areas. Infiltration had a major hole in reducing loads, although there were also significant amounts of pollutant removed by the systems. At the first approach, the P-k-C* model presented limitations on describing stormwater treatment, because of its unsteady and intermittent characteristics. The second approach was the simplest, based on containing the whole runoff volume, but it also showed a lack of studies stablishing empiric relations to estimate its performance. The third approach was the most adequate to the P-k-C* model, which usage could be improved by two adaptations in its parameters: kinetic coefficient adaptations or the adoption of equivalent steady flows, to describe the annual wetland performance. The study concluded that constructed wetlands show great promise for treating nonpoint source pollution in the watershed, but there is a need of more studies to regionalize empiric solutions available in the scientific literature, to apply the designing techniques with greater precision.

The Baltic Sea has a major problem with eutrophication where acts have been taken by the EU commission to sign a common action plan, the Baltic Sea Action Plan (BSAP). The overall goal is to reach a good environmental status by the year 2021, where one of the sub-goals is that the Baltic Sea should be unaffected by eutrophication. For Sweden, the goal for phosphorus (P) is to reduce the annual load with 290 tonnes by the year 2021. Since phosphorus is the main limiting nutrient, it is targeted for reduction when it comes to addressing problems with eutrophication. The objective of this thesis is to estimate the effect of constructed wetlands (CW) and buffer zones (BZ), as measures for reducing agricultural phosphorus, in a specific sub-catchment area of the Söderköping river. The waters in this sub-catchment area have the status unsatisfying and poor. If these measures are suitable for this area and where, and if the effect implementation would fulfill a good status for these waters, are questions that this thesis will aim at. An assigned P reduction has been calculated for the sub-catchments where the waters with unsatisfying and poor statuses are present. Areas for CWs have been calculated with the help of the assigned reduction and retentions found in the literature, and location for them has been suggested. With the help of calculated areas for potential BZs for this area, the effect of them have been calculated by retentions found in the literature with 9 and 10 m widths. The results show higher results for assigned P reduction than the actual P load that is present in the sub-catchments. This gives odd results for the effect of the CWs where they show a P reduction of 59-234 %. The method for assigned P reduction is therefore questioned, where the method for the reference value that is used is not without flaws. For BZs, a reduction of 5-14 % is shown, where the reduction is larger with larger areas for potential BZs. Whether the implementation of the measures will fulfill a good status for the waters is difficult to say, due to the inadequate methods and the odd results given in this thesis.

Constructed wetlands (CW) and soil aquifer treatment (SAT) represent natural wastewater treatment systems (NWTSs). The high costs of conventional wastewater treatment techniques encourage more studies to investigate lower cost treatment methods which make these appropriate for developing and also in developed countries. The main objective of this research was to investigate the removals of nutrients and organic micropollutants (OMPs) through SAT, CW and the CW-SAT hybrid system. CWs are an efficient technology to purify and remove different nutrients as well as OMPs from wastewater. They removed most of the dissolved organic matter (DOC), total nitrogen (TN), ammonium and phosphate. Furthermore, CWs aeration could be used as one of the alternatives to reduce CWs footprint by around 10%. The vegetation in CWs plays an essential role in the treatment especially for nitrogen and phosphate removals, it is responsible for the removal of 15%, 55%, 38%, and 22% for TN, dissolved organic nitrogen (DON), nitrate and phosphate, respectively. CWs achieved a very high removal for some OMPs; they attenuated acetaminophen, caffeine, fluoxetine and trimethoprim (>90%) under different redox conditions. Moreover, it was found that increasing temperature (up to 36 C) could enhance the removals of atenolol, caffeine, DEET and trimethoprim by 17%, 14%, 28% and 45%, respectively. On the other hand, some OMPs, were found to be removed by vegetation such as: acetaminophen, caffeine, fluoxetine, sulfamethoxazole, and trimethoprim. Moreover, atenolol, caffeine, fluoxetine and trimethoprim, showed high removal (>80%) through SAT system. It was also found that, temperature increasing and using primary instead of secondary effluent could enhance the removal of some OMPs. The CWs performance study showed that these systems are adapted to the prevailing extreme arid conditions and the average percent removals are about, 88%, 96%, 98%, 98% and 92%, for COD, BOD and TSS, ammonium and phosphate, respectively. Additionally, the natural hybrid system (CW-SAT) can provide an effective treatment technology of reclaimed water for replenishing aquifers and subsequent reuse. This hybrid system embodied the performance advantages of both processes and exhibits a high potential for removal of OMPs, nutrients, metals as well as pathogens, bacteria and viruses.

Inom Rååns avrinningsområde, som är beläget i kommunerna Helsingborg, Landskrona, Svalöv och Bjuv, har anläggning av våtmarker pågått sedan 1990-talet. De anlagda våtmarkerna syftar till att minska näringsförlusterna från omkringliggande jordbruksmarker till vattendrag och gynna den biologiska mångfalden. I denna studie har 28 anlagda våtmarker inom Rååns avrinningsområde studerats. Studien hade två övergripande syften varav det ena var att undersöka sambandet mellan sedimentackumulering och våtmarkernas utformning samt placering i landskapet. Det andra syftet var att undersöka våtmarkernas renoveringsbehov. Renoveringsbehov syftar på åtgärder som behöver utföras för att upprätthålla våtmarkernas ursprungliga funktion och utformning såsom flödesvägar, vegetation, djupprofil samt in- och utlopp. Studien baserades på observationer och mätningar som utfördes i oktober år 2020. Resultatet visade att sedimentackumuleringen varierade mellan 0,2–2,3 cm per år och att både utformnings- och placeringsfaktorer påverkade sedimentackumuleringen. Det uppskattade ursprungliga vattendjupet hade en positiv korrelation med sedimentackumulationen och sedimentdjupet blev högre med våtmarkens ålder. Uppgrundningen var högre närmare inloppet i fyra av sju långsmala våtmarker (Längd-breddförhållande, 𝐿 ∶ 𝐵 > 3). I de långsmala våtmarkerna fanns även en positiv korrelation mellan hydraulisk belastning (HL) och sedimentackumulering. I våtmarker med 𝐿: 𝐵 < 3 fanns en övre gräns där höga värden på HL istället hade en negativ påverkan på sedimentackumuleringen. Våtmarkens storlek i relation till avrinningsområdet hade ett negativt samband med sedimentackumuleringen. Att många faktorer påverkade sedimentackumulationen gjorde att uppgrundningen skedde olika snabbt i våtmarkerna. Därmed kunde inte ett exakt åldersintervall för urgrävning fastställas. Däremot kan urgrävning potentiellt begränsas till början av våtmarker i de fall våtmarken är långsmal med djuphåla vid inloppet. De undersökta våtmarkerna hade varierande grad av renoveringsbehov. Urgrävning bedöms vara den mest resurskrävande åtgärden. Det är dock en nödvändig åtgärd om våtmarkerna ska fortsätta fungera som näringsfällor. Andra renoveringsbehov innefattade exempelvis enklare skötsel av vegetation, reparation av teknisk utrustning såsom rör och brunnar samt uppföljning av avtal med markägare för att se till att våtmarkerna förvaltas på sådant sätt att deras miljönytta gynnas. / Wetlands have been constructed within the catchment area of Råån since the 1990s. Råån is a river flowing through the municipalities Helsingborg, Landskrona, Svalöv, and Bjuv. The constructed wetlands aim to reduce nutrient leakage from surrounding agricultural land and increase biodiversity. In this study 28 constructed wetlands were studied with two aims: (i) to investigate the relationship between sediment accumulation in wetlands and wetland design and location in the landscape and (ii) investigate maintenance needs of the wetlands. Maintenance needs involve taking efforts to restore flow paths, depth profile, vegetation, and inlet and outlet to return the original function and design of the wetland. The study is based on observations and measurements carried out in October 2020. The results showed that sediment accumulation varied between 0.2–2.3 cm per year and that both wetland design and location affected sediment accumulation. Estimated original water depth had a positive correlation with sediment accumulation and sediment depth had a positive correlation with wetland age. The level of shoaling was higher closer to the inlet in four of seven long narrow wetlands (length- width ratio, L: W, > 3). In the long narrow wetlands, there was also a positive correlation between HL and sediment accumulation. However, in shorter and wider wetlands (L: W <3), there was an upper limit where high values of HL instead had a negative effect on sediment accumulation. Wetland area in relation to catchment area had a negative correlation with sediment accumulation. Shoaling rate is different in the wetlands since sediment accumulation is affected by many parameters. Thus, an exact time interval for excavation could not be determined. However, excavation can potentially be limited to the inlet of the wetlands if the wetland is long and narrow with a deep area near the inlet. The result showed that the wetlands had varying degrees of maintenance needs. Excavation is considered to be the most resource-intensive measure. However, excavation is necessary to maintain the function of the wetlands. Other maintenance needs include maintenance of vegetation, repair of technical equipment, and extension and enforcement of contracts with landowners to ensure that the wetlands are managed in such a way that the environmental function of the wetlands are favored.

This present habilitation thesis in wastewater systems explores the theoretical and practical implications of achieving sustainability through and in wastewater treatment. It herby uses the discussions on circularity, sustainability and nexus thinking while investigating their relationship amongst each other and in their relation to wastewater treatment. This thesis consists of seven main chapters. Chapter 1 provides an overview of the approach in which the present manuscript delves into the aspects of circularity, sustainability and nexus concepts and wastewater treatment. Chapter 2 to 5 contain the manuscripts that relate to (a) conceptual considerations, (b) examples of circularity, (c) sustainability assessments and (d) nexus applications. Chapter 6 provides a series of lessons learned from the collated findings. Chapter 7 holds the appendix with supplemental information from the respective manuscripts. The work is based on a variety of publications that the author and her team members produced primarily between January 2016 and October 2019 (and in part until the submission of this thesis). While they include 5 published first-author peer-reviewed publications some sections also contain further relevant co-authored publications. Water security is key for a sustainable world. Wastewater can play a critical role towards provisioning water sustainably to address water scarcity and water stress. However, wastewater treatment is currently itself not sustainable. For wastewater treatment to be put on a sustainable footing, systemic change of the sector and the way wastewater is viewed needs to occur. Wastewater treatment can provide a series of resources for circular use – with nature-based solutions offering co-benefits over grey infrastructure that extend to other nexus sectors such as food and energy. However, circularity does not necessarily equate with sustainability. Environmental components are just one of the three dimensions of sustainability, but data for indicators for social and economic aspects of wastewater treatment are scarce. Moving towards sustainable solutions may only be possible by employing tools that step away from an ever-better understanding of current systems and shifting towards modes of analysis that help generate target and transformation knowledge in inter- and transdisciplinary research and project settings. These views mandate a radical revision of current curricula of engineers and other disciplines to include courses on social, economic and environmental dimensions of sustainability. Training in designing, conducting and evaluating participatory processes that include a variety of stakeholders may significantly improve future generations’ capacities to design, construct, and operate sustainable wastewater treatment systems that provide treated wastewater as a sustainable source of water in a water secure world.:ABSTRACT vii ZUSAMMENFASSUNG (ABSTRACT in German) ix ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xi 1 Introduction 2 1.1 Scope 2 1.2 The structure of this work 8 1.3 References 10 2 Conceptual explorations 14 2.1 Learning from Integrated Management Approaches to Implement the Nexus 15 2.1.1 Introduction 16 2.1.2 Methods 19 2.1.3 Results 21 2.1.4 Discussion 26 2.1.5 Conclusion 27 2.1.6 References 29 2.2 Making the Water–Soil–Waste Nexus Work: Framing the Boundaries of Resource Flows 33 2.2.1 Introduction 34 2.2.2 An Overview of Integrated Approaches Related to the WSW Nexus 36 2.2.3 The System Boundaries of Integrated Environmental Management Approaches 38 2.2.4 What Is Different This Time?—The Boundary of the Water–Soil–Waste Nexus System 41 2.2.5 Illustrating the Boundaries of the WSW Nexus System—Case Studies 43 2.2.6 Conclusions 48 2.2.7 References and Notes 50 3 Examples of circularity 56 3.1 The Role of Constructed Wetlands for Biomass Production within the Water-Soil-Waste Nexus 59 3.1.1 Introduction 60 3.1.2 Methods 63 3.1.3 Results and discussion 63 3.1.4 Conclusions 68 3.1.5 References 70 3.2 Constructed Wetlands for Resource Recovery in Developing Countries 73 3.2.1 Introduction 74 3.2.2 Methods 76 3.2.3 Results 80 3.2.4 Discussion 91 3.2.5 Conclusions 99 3.2.6 References 102 4 Assessing sustainability of wastewater systems 110 4.1 Assessing Sustainability of Wastewater Management Systems in a Multi-Scalar, Transdisciplinary Manner in Latin America 113 4.1.1 Introduction 114 4.1.2 Materials and Methods 116 4.1.3 Results 124 4.1.4 Discussion 129 4.1.5 Conclusion 132 4.1.6 References 134 4.2 Selecting Sustainable Sewage Sludge Reuse Options through a Systematic Assessment Framework: Methodology and Case Study in Latin America 137 4.2.1 Introduction 138 4.2.2 Methods 139 4.2.3 Results and discussion 141 4.2.4 Conclusion 154 4.2.5 References 156 5 Applying the Nexus 160 5.1 Considering Resources Beyond Water: Irrigation and Drainage Management in the Context of the Water–Energy–Food Nexus 161 5.1.1 Introduction 163 5.1.2 Integrating resource management through Nexus thinking 165 5.1.3 Assessing the negative and positive environmental effects of irrigation, and the provision of ecosystem services 169 5.1.4 The role of stakeholders in governing irrigation 171 5.1.5 Conclusion 173 5.1.6 References 175 5.2 Co-generating knowledge in nexus research for sustainable wastewater management 177 5.2.1 Introduction 178 5.2.2 Material and Methods 180 5.2.3 Results 184 5.2.4 Discussion 202 5.2.5 Conclusions 204 5.2.6 References 206 6 Lessons learned and outlook 210 6.1 Increased circularity does not equate in increased sustainability. 212 6.2 Data scarcity hampers quantitative knowledge generation. 214 6.3 Moving from systems’ understanding to comprehensive knowledge generation for systemic change. 217 6.4 Participation and inclusion of stakeholders is important and should not be an afterthought. 218 6.5 References 221 7 Supplemental Information (SI)/Supplemental Material (SM) 226 7.1 SI for 4.1 ‘Assessing Sustainability of Wastewater Management Systems in a Multi-Scalar, Transdisciplinary Manner in Latin America’ 226 Appendix A 226 Appendix B 233 Appendix C 240 Appendix D 241 Appendix E 243 Appendix F 251 7.2 SI for 4.2 ‘Selecting Sustainable Sewage Sludge Reuse Options through a Systematic Assessment Framework: Methodology and Case Study in Latin America’ 256 7.3 SI for 5.1 ‘Co-generating knowledge in nexus research for sustainable wastewater management’ 261 7.3.1 SM1: Expert interview questionnaire assessing information on stakeholder’s perspectives. 261 7.3.2 SM2: Wickedness Analysis questions 264 7.3.3 SM3: Detailed results of the stakeholder perspective of wastewater treatment in each case 265 7.3.4 SM4: Detailed responses to the workshop/training evaluations 272 8 Contribution of the author in collaborative publications 283 9 Eidesstattliche Versicherung 285 / Diese Habilitationsschrift untersucht die theoretischen und praktischen Implikationen der Erreichung von Nachhaltigkeit durch und in der Abwasserbehandlung. Sie nutzt die Diskussionen über Kreislaufwirtschaft, Nachhaltigkeit und Nexus-Denken und untersucht deren Beziehung untereinander und in ihrem Verhältnis zur Abwasserbehandlung. Dieses Manuskript besteht aus sieben Hauptkapiteln. Kapitel 1 gibt einen Überblick über den Ansatz, in dem das vorliegende Manuskript die Aspekte der Kreislaufwirtschaft, Nachhaltigkeit und Nexus-Konzepte und Abwasserbehandlung untersucht. Kapitel 2 bis 5 enthält die Manuskripte, die sich auf (a) konzeptionelle Überlegungen, (b) Beispiele für Kreislaufwirtschaft, c) Nachhaltigkeitsbewertungen und (d) Nexusanwendungen beziehen. Kapitel 6 enthält eine Reihe von Einsichten, die aus den gesammelten Erkenntnissen gezogen wurden. Das letzte Kapitel enthält die Zusatzdaten und -informationen einiger der Artikel. Die Arbeit basiert auf einer Vielzahl von Publikationen, die die Autorin und ihre Teammitglieder hauptsächlich zwischen Januar 2016 und Oktober 2019 (und teilweise bis zur Einreichung dieser Arbeit) erstellt haben. Während sie 5 veröffentlichte Erstautoren-Peer-Review-Publikationen umfassen, enthalten manche Abschnitte auch weitere relevante, mitverfasste Veröffentlichungen. Wassersicherheit ist unumgänglich für eine nachhaltige Welt. Abwasser kann eine Schlüsselrolle bei der Bereitstellung einer nachhaltigen Wasserquelle spielen, um Wasserknappheit und Wasserstress zu bewältigen. Die Abwasserbehandlung selbst ist jedoch derzeit nicht nachhaltig. Damit die Abwasserbehandlung auf eine nachhaltige Grundlage gestellt werden kann, müssen die Sektoren und die Art und Weise, wie Abwasser betrachtet wird, verändert werden. Die Abwasserbehandlung kann eine Reihe von Ressourcen für die Kreislaufwirtschaft bereitstellen – naturbasierte Lösungen bieten weitere Vorteile gegenüber grauer Infrastruktur, die sich auf andere Nexus-Sektoren wie Nahrung und Energie erstrecken. Kreislaufwirtschaft ist jedoch nicht unbedingt gleichbedeutend mit Nachhaltigkeit. Umweltkomponenten sind nur eine der drei Dimensionen der Nachhaltigkeit, aber Daten für Indikatoren für soziale und wirtschaftliche Aspekte der Abwasserbehandlung sind rar. Der Übergang zu nachhaltigen Lösungen ist möglicherweise nur möglich, wenn Instrumente eingesetzt werden, die sich von einem immer besseren Verständnis aktueller Systeme entfernen und sich in Richtung Analysemodi bewegen, die dazu beitragen, Ziel- und Transformationswissen in inter- und transdisziplinären Forschungs- und Projektumgebungen zu generieren. Diese Ergebnisse schreiben eine radikale Überarbeitung der aktuellen Lehrpläne von Ingenieuren und anderen Disziplinen vor, um Kurse über soziale, wirtschaftliche und ökologische Dimensionen der Nachhaltigkeit aufzunehmen. Schulungen in der Konzeption, Durchführung und Bewertung partizipatorischer Prozesse, die eine Vielzahl von Akteuren einbeziehen, können die Kapazitäten der zukünftigen Generation zur Planung, Konstruktion und zum Betrieb nachhaltiger Abwasserbehandlungssysteme, die behandeltes Abwasser als nachhaltige Wasserquelle in einer wassersicheren Welt bereitstellen, erheblich verbessern.:ABSTRACT vii ZUSAMMENFASSUNG (ABSTRACT in German) ix ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xi 1 Introduction 2 1.1 Scope 2 1.2 The structure of this work 8 1.3 References 10 2 Conceptual explorations 14 2.1 Learning from Integrated Management Approaches to Implement the Nexus 15 2.1.1 Introduction 16 2.1.2 Methods 19 2.1.3 Results 21 2.1.4 Discussion 26 2.1.5 Conclusion 27 2.1.6 References 29 2.2 Making the Water–Soil–Waste Nexus Work: Framing the Boundaries of Resource Flows 33 2.2.1 Introduction 34 2.2.2 An Overview of Integrated Approaches Related to the WSW Nexus 36 2.2.3 The System Boundaries of Integrated Environmental Management Approaches 38 2.2.4 What Is Different This Time?—The Boundary of the Water–Soil–Waste Nexus System 41 2.2.5 Illustrating the Boundaries of the WSW Nexus System—Case Studies 43 2.2.6 Conclusions 48 2.2.7 References and Notes 50 3 Examples of circularity 56 3.1 The Role of Constructed Wetlands for Biomass Production within the Water-Soil-Waste Nexus 59 3.1.1 Introduction 60 3.1.2 Methods 63 3.1.3 Results and discussion 63 3.1.4 Conclusions 68 3.1.5 References 70 3.2 Constructed Wetlands for Resource Recovery in Developing Countries 73 3.2.1 Introduction 74 3.2.2 Methods 76 3.2.3 Results 80 3.2.4 Discussion 91 3.2.5 Conclusions 99 3.2.6 References 102 4 Assessing sustainability of wastewater systems 110 4.1 Assessing Sustainability of Wastewater Management Systems in a Multi-Scalar, Transdisciplinary Manner in Latin America 113 4.1.1 Introduction 114 4.1.2 Materials and Methods 116 4.1.3 Results 124 4.1.4 Discussion 129 4.1.5 Conclusion 132 4.1.6 References 134 4.2 Selecting Sustainable Sewage Sludge Reuse Options through a Systematic Assessment Framework: Methodology and Case Study in Latin America 137 4.2.1 Introduction 138 4.2.2 Methods 139 4.2.3 Results and discussion 141 4.2.4 Conclusion 154 4.2.5 References 156 5 Applying the Nexus 160 5.1 Considering Resources Beyond Water: Irrigation and Drainage Management in the Context of the Water–Energy–Food Nexus 161 5.1.1 Introduction 163 5.1.2 Integrating resource management through Nexus thinking 165 5.1.3 Assessing the negative and positive environmental effects of irrigation, and the provision of ecosystem services 169 5.1.4 The role of stakeholders in governing irrigation 171 5.1.5 Conclusion 173 5.1.6 References 175 5.2 Co-generating knowledge in nexus research for sustainable wastewater management 177 5.2.1 Introduction 178 5.2.2 Material and Methods 180 5.2.3 Results 184 5.2.4 Discussion 202 5.2.5 Conclusions 204 5.2.6 References 206 6 Lessons learned and outlook 210 6.1 Increased circularity does not equate in increased sustainability. 212 6.2 Data scarcity hampers quantitative knowledge generation. 214 6.3 Moving from systems’ understanding to comprehensive knowledge generation for systemic change. 217 6.4 Participation and inclusion of stakeholders is important and should not be an afterthought. 218 6.5 References 221 7 Supplemental Information (SI)/Supplemental Material (SM) 226 7.1 SI for 4.1 ‘Assessing Sustainability of Wastewater Management Systems in a Multi-Scalar, Transdisciplinary Manner in Latin America’ 226 Appendix A 226 Appendix B 233 Appendix C 240 Appendix D 241 Appendix E 243 Appendix F 251 7.2 SI for 4.2 ‘Selecting Sustainable Sewage Sludge Reuse Options through a Systematic Assessment Framework: Methodology and Case Study in Latin America’ 256 7.3 SI for 5.1 ‘Co-generating knowledge in nexus research for sustainable wastewater management’ 261 7.3.1 SM1: Expert interview questionnaire assessing information on stakeholder’s perspectives. 261 7.3.2 SM2: Wickedness Analysis questions 264 7.3.3 SM3: Detailed results of the stakeholder perspective of wastewater treatment in each case 265 7.3.4 SM4: Detailed responses to the workshop/training evaluations 272 8 Contribution of the author in collaborative publications 283 9 Eidesstattliche Versicherung 285

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Arbetet syftar till att analysera retentionseffekterna av anlagda våtmarker i anslutning till jordbruk i Sverige. För att uppnå detta har följande tre frågeställningar besvarats; Vad är retentions-effekten av anlagda våtmarker i anslutning till jordbruket? Vilka är de styrande faktorerna för de effektiva våtmarkerna med avseende på näringsretention? Hur många fler våtmarker behöver anläggas för att sjöar och vattendrag ska uppnå god status med avseende på jordbrukets näringsutsläpp? Frågeställningarna har besvarats med hjälp av en litteraturstudie, datainsamling, beräkningar och en modellanalys. Insamlingen av data gjordes för 44 våtmarker angående näringsretention samt ett antal parametrar som ansågs betydelsefulla för retentionen. Effektiviteten av de anlagda våtmarkerna beräknades utifrån en genomsnittlig retentionskvot, genomsnittlig procentuell retention samt utifrån 10 %, 15 %, 85 % och 90 % percentilerna framtagna genom en normalfördelning av de procentuella retentionerna. Detta resulterade i en retentionseffekt från 7,1 % till 33 % för kväve och från 31 % till 57 % för fosfor. De styrande faktorerna för retention är främst näringsbelastning och uppehållstid. Dessa styrs i sin tur av flera andra faktorer som utformning, hydrauliska förhållanden och tillrinningsområdets utformning. Beräkningen av hur många fler våtmarker som behöver anläggas gjorde baserat på målet att minska fosforutsläppet till sjöar och vattendrag med 670 ton/år. Detta gjordes utifrån de retentionseffekter som beräknades i frågeställning 1 samt utifrån två scenarion där jordbruket hade 100 % respektive 45,8 % av ansvaret, vilket resulterade i ökningar av antalet våtmarker mellan 1 813 och 37 757 stycken. Slutsatsen som kan dras av detta är att retentionen skiljer sig betydligt från våtmark till våtmark och vidare fastställning av vad som gör en våtmark effektiv bör göras. / The thesis aims to analyze the retention effects of constructed wetlands connected to agricultural land in Sweden. To achieve this, the following questions have been answered; What is the retention effects of constructed wetlands in connection to agriculture? What are the governing factors for the efficient wetlands regarding nutrition retention? How many more wetlands are needed for lakes and watercourses to achieve a good status regarding agricultural nutrient emissions? The questions have been answered through a literature study, collection of data, calculations, and an analysis of models. Collection of data from 44 wetlands was done regarding nutrient retention and several parameters that were considered significant. The efficiency of the wetlands was calculated based on an average retention ratio, an average percentage retention and based on the 10 %, 15 %, 85 % and 90 % percentiles from a normal distribution of the percentage retentions. This resulted in efficiencies from 7.1 % to 33 % for nitrogen and 31 % to 57 % for phosphorous. The governing factors for retention are mainly the nutrition load and the residence time of the water. These are in turn governed by several other factors such as geometrical factors of the wetland, hydraulic conditions, and properties of the catchment area. The calculation of how many more wetlands that need to be constructed was based on the goal of reducing phosphorous emissions to lakes and watercourses by 670 tones/year. This was done based on the efficiencies calculated to answer question 1 as well as two scenarios where agriculture land had 100 % respectively 45.8 % of the responsibility, which resulted in increases of the number of wetlands from 1,813 to 37,757. In conclusion, retention differs significantly from wetland to wetland and further determination of what makes a wetland efficient should be done.

Precipitation over coal fly ash surfaces raises concerns about potential downstream impacts of dissolved selenium (Se) on aquatic ecosystems. Detention ponds hold runoff until aqueous Se concentrations meet water quality regulations: within 10 days, 90% of runoff must be discharged and cannot exceed 11.8 μg Se L-1 (ppb). Constructed wetland (CW) phytoremediation is a potential treatment option to meet these regulations. This research was conducted to 1.) Assess the potential of native southeastern aquatic macrophytes for Se tolerance and removal efficiency compared to unplanted (UNP) detention ponds; 2.) Evaluate seasonal influence on Se removal in CWs over four, weekly flood-discharge cycles; and 3.) Determine the effect of temperature on aqueous Se removal. Monoculture CW microcosms (110 L) were flooded six days with 500 or 1000 ppb Se, as selenite (SeO32-) or selenate (SeO42-) evaluating five plant species for Se tolerance. Seasonal evaluations were conducted with cattail (Typha angustifolia L.; CAT) and duckweed (Lemna minor L.; DWD) over four weekly flood-discharge cycles at 16 or 32 ppb SeO42--Se. Cattail, DWD, or UNP volatilization chambers (VCs) flooded with a 3 L solution at 35 ppb SeO42--Se were evaluated under 12 h photoperiod at either 20 or 30°C. All experiments contained a zero Se control. Water, plant, and soil total Se concentrations were determined by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS) and analyzed with PROC GLM (SAS EG 7.1) at α=0.05. Cattail and DWD were selected for further evaluation with SeO42--Se. The greatest aqueous Se removal was observed in the summer (73%), followed by the fall (42%) and spring (41%), compared to winter (18%). Temperature was strongly correlated with Se removal (0.65, P<0.0001). Except for summer, after two flood-discharge cycles, CAT and DWD improved aqueous Se removal compared to UNP controls. Volatilization chamber data indicated greater Se removal at 30 (69%) compared to 20°C (54%). At 30°C, DWD decreased aqueous Se concentrations below 11.8 ppb Se within 10 days. Given their efficacy and abundance, CAT and DWD are deemed suitable species for phytoremediation in CWs supplied with Se-impacted waters.