Thesis (Ph. D.)--Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1993. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 152-169).

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1986. / Vita. Abstract. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 153-164). Also available via the Internet.

Growth of Corbicula fluminea was monitored in the laboratory. Three experiments were conducted. Experiment I utilized three substrates and one food type. Experiment II utilized three substrates and two food types. Experiments I and II were conducted to determine if substrate type or food type effected growth. Experiment III used no substrates, one food type and was conducted to determine growth response to different types of water. Clams were maintained in three substrates: sand, gravel and clay. Clams were also maintained without substrate. Growth was monitored by measuring shell length (mm) and recording the weight (mg) of clams over a period of thirty days. At the end of the test period data were evaluated for normality and homogeneity.

Experiments were conducted on the effectiveness of exposure to simultaneous temperature shock with chlorination, monochloramine, and ammonia as control agents of the Asiatic clam, Corbicula sp. Control procedures were evaluated based on lethal and sublethal responses (e.g., glycogen, tissue water, dry weight index, and siphoning activity) of clams during 30-day laboratory artificial stream studies. Studies also were conducted comparing sublethal responses (e.g., glycogen, tissue water, soluble protein, and siphoning activity) of clams to copper, a component of power plant effluents, during 30-day laboratory, site-specific, and in-situ copper exposures. This was done to evaluate the use of the Asiatic clam as a biomonitoring organism of copper contamination. Regarding temperature and chlorine interactions, it was demonstrated that an increase of 10° C was needed to increase significantly adult and juvenile mortality in the presence of chlorine (0.30 mg/l TRC) during winter and summer. Naturally high temperatures also increased adult mortality during in-plant chlorination procedures, with the highest mortality occurring during the spring. Significant decreases in the dry weight condition index were observed for adults chlorinated at 5° increases during winter and at 10° C increases for control (non-chlorinated) clams during both winter and summer. Similarly, glycogen content responded with a temperature-dependent decrease in both control and chlorinated clams during the summer. In addition, exposure to increased temperatures significantly increased the siphoning activity of control adults during summer and juveniles during winter. Chlorinated clams experienced near total inhibition of siphoning activity at all temperatures tested, except for adults exposed at 33° C. Increased dsiphoning activity, decreased glycogen content, and possibly ammonia accumulation in the mantle cavity were believed to be responsible for the increased mortality of clams chlorinated at higher temperatures. Total residual chlorine, with < 90% as monochloramine, was found to be equally toxic to adults and more toxic to juveniles compared to total residual chlorine containing higher amounts of free residual chlorine. Since free residual chlorine is considered to be more toxic than combined residual chlorine (e.g., monochloramine), questions were raised as to which form of chlorine was actually exposed to the tissues of adducted Asiatic clams. Ammonia was considerably less toxic to adults but more toxic to juveniles compared to chlorine. Both monochloramine and ammonia caused significant reductions in clam glycogen content and siphoning activity. The siphoning activity of clams exposed to ammonia, although significantly reduced, was considerably higher than siphoning activities observed for monochlorinated and chlorinated clams. Clam tissue water content decreased in the presence of ammonia but remained unaffected in the presence of monochloramine. Ammonia toxicity to adult clams was highly pH dependent but may be useful in controlling larval stages of Asiatic clams. More definitive research is needed to evaluate fully the potential of monochlorination as a biofouling control agent. Clams were more sensitive to copper exposures, with respect to glycogen content, in field-located (i.e. site-specific) artificial streams than in laboratory artificial streams. Specifically, the "no observable effect concentration" was between 5.5 and 8.4 μg Cu/1 during the 30-day site-specific studies compared to 17.2-32.1 μg Cu/1 in the laboratory. Copper significantly increased clam tissue water content during the Clinch River and June site-specific studies. However, clam soluble protein content demonstrated no consistent dose-dependent response during the laboratory or site-specific studies. Glycogen and tissue water content, although subject to some seasonal influences, are recommended for use in Corbicula for future site-specific and in-situ long-term toxicity experiments. / Master of Science

A biological monitoring tool to assess water quality using bivalve gape behavior was developed and demonstrated. The purpose of this work was to develop methodologies for screening water quality appropriate to the goals of the watershed paradigm. A model of bivalve gape behavior based on prediction of behavior using autoregressive techniques was the foundation of the bivalve biomonitoring system. Current technology was used in developing the system to provide bivalve gape state data in a continuous real-time manner. A laboratory version of the system, including data collection and analysis hardware and software, was developed for use as a toxicological assay for determination of effective concentrations of toxicant(s) or other types of stress on bivalve gape behavior. Corbicula fluminea was monitored and challenged with copper, zinc, and chlorpyrifos using the system. Effective concentrations of 176±23µg/L copper, 768±412µg/L zinc, and 68µg/L chlorpyrifos were observed using a natural water with high dissolved organic carbon concentrations. A rugged field version of the bivalve biomonitoring system was developed and deployed in two locations. The field systems were fitted with a photovoltaic array, a single board computer, and a CDPD telemetry modem for robust remote operation. Data were telemetered at a time relevant rate of once every ten minutes. One unit was deployed in Lake Lewisville, Denton County, TX in February 2000. Data were telemetered and archived at a 92% success rate. Bivalve gape data demonstrated significant behavioral deviations on average 5 times per month. A second unit was deployed in Pecan Creek, Denton, TX in June 2001. Data from this site were telemetered and archived at a 96% success rate. Over the months of June-August 2001, 16 significant behavioral deviations were observed, 63% of which were correlated with changes in physical/chemical parameters. This work demonstrated the relative sensitivity of bivalve gape as a toxicological endpoint and the feasibility of its use in a continuous, real-time, bivalve biomonitoring system. Technical aspects of collecting, telemetering, and analyzing this type of data in a time-relevant manner were developed resulting in a system appropriate for use as a means of data collection within the watershed paradigm.

In the last decade emerging contaminants research has intensified in a bid to answer questions about fate, transport, and effects as these chemicals as they get released into the environment. The chemicals of interest were the antimicrobials; triclocarban (TCC) and triclosan (TCS), and a metabolite of triclosan, methyl triclosan (MTCS). This research was designed to answer the question: what is the fate of these chemicals once they are released from the waste water treatment plant into receiving streams. Three different assessment methods; field monitoring, in-situ experiments, and laboratory studies were used to answer the overall question. TCS, TCC, and MTCS levels were measured in surface water, sediment and the Asiatic clam Corbicula fluminea. Field studies were conducted using four sites at Pecan Creek, Denton TX. Levels of all three chemicals in clams were up to fives orders of magnitude the water concentrations but an order of magnitude lower than in sediment. Highest sediment levels of chemicals were measured in samples from the mouth of Pecan Creek (highest organic matter). TCC was the most and TCS was the least accumulated chemicals. In-situ and lab studies both indicated that uptake of these chemicals into the clams was very rapid and measurable within 24hours of exposure. The after clams were transferred into clean water most of the compounds were depurated within 14 days.

Situé en France dans l’Aveyron, le bassin minier de Viviez a été soumis pendant plus d’un siècle à des rejets métalliques (principalement Cd et Zn) et est à l’origine de la contamination de l’estuaire de la Gironde, mise en évidence dans les années 1970. C’est dans ce contexte de pollution avérée que d’importants travaux de remédiation des sols ont été entrepris dès 2007. Les principaux objectifs de cette thèse résidaient en la caractérisation des premiers impacts de la remédiation sur l’amélioration de l’état chimique et écologique de l’hydrosystème via l’étude des biofilms périphytiques et des bivalves filtreurs Corbicula fluminea. En prévision des effets à plus long terme de la remédiation, il s’agissait en second lieu d’évaluer les capacités de décontamination des deux modèles biologiques et de s’intéresser à la restructuration des communautés diatomiques en réponse à une levée du stress métallique par transplantations in situ ou en laboratoire. Le suivi des bioaccumulations métalliques in situ réalisé entre 2008 et 2010 a révélé la rémanence d’un très fort gradient de contamination, à l’origine d’importants clivages communautaires dans les biofilms diatomiques. De plus, une augmentation de la pression métallique a été mesurée in situ en aval du site industriel en 2010 certainement en relation avec les travaux d’excavation. Des études de décontamination ont été menées en laboratoire après l’exposition des organismes in situ au cours de deux saisons. Chez Corbicula fluminea le Zn a été très rapidement dépuré, tandis que 15 mois n’ont pas suffi à obtenir la décontamination totale du Cd, estimée complète par modélisation après 740 à 1360 jours en fonction des saisons d’exposition. Bien que le potentiel de récupération des biofilms soit apparu rapidement en conditions naturelles après transplantation, les études de laboratoire menées sur plusieurs semaines en canaux n’ont pas abouti à une décontamination complète du Cd après 100 jours, qui a été estimée totale après 150 à 450 jours en fonction des saisons d’exposition. Malgré des prémices de restructuration, aucun retour vers des communautés de type témoin n’a pu être mis en évidence. Ces études ont souligné l’importance des phénomènes de migration d’espèces dans le potentiel de récupération des biofilms. Enfin, une étude portant sur les tératologies de diatomées a révélé leur maintien prolongé dans la population malgré l’arrêt de la contamination. L’ensemble de ces études a mis en évidence la complémentarité de l’utilisation des deux modèles biologiques, capables d’intégrer et de réguler différemment les contaminants, pour évaluer leur potentiel de récupération dans un contexte de gestion corrective de l’hydrosystème. / Located in France, in Aveyron, the mining basin of Viviez was submitted for over a century to metal discharges (mainly Cd and Zn) and was proven in the 1970s to be the source of the contamination of the Gironde estuary. In this context, significant soil remediation works were initiated in 2007. The main objectives of this thesis focused on the characterization of the first impacts of remediation on the chemical and ecological improvement status of the hydrosystem via the study of periphytic biofilms and filter-feeding bivalves Corbicula fluminea. In anticipation of the long-term effects of the remediation, a second part was devoted to evaluate the decontamination capabilities of the two biological models and to focus on the restructuring capacities of diatomcommunities in response to metal stress by translocations in situ or to laboratory. Monitoring of metal bioaccumulation carried out in situ between 2008 and 2010 revealed the persistence of a strong gradient of contamination, causing major shifts in the diatom communities of biofilms. In addition, an increase in metal contamination pressure was measured down streams the industrial site in 2010, certainly in relation with the excavation works. Decontamination studies were conducted in the laboratory after in situ exposure of organisms during two seasons. Corbicula fluminea showed fast depuration of Zn, while 15 months were not long enough to get the total decontamination of Cd, estimated complete after 740 to 1360 days according to the exposure season. Although the potential for metal decontamination of biofilms appeared to be rapid under natural conditions after transplantation, laboratory studies conducted over several weeks in artificial streams did not result in complete decontamination of Cd after 100 days, and was estimated complete after 150 to 450 days according to the exposure season. Despite the beginnings of restructuration, no return to communities similar to controls could be observed. These studies have emphasized the importance of the phenomena of species migration in the recoverypotential of biofilms. Finally, a study focussing on diatom teratologies revealed their long persistence in the population despite the stop of the contamination. All these studies demonstrated the complementary usefulness of both biological models, which differently integrate and regulate contaminants, to assess their recovery potential in a remediation context of the hydrosystem.

Corbicula fluminea (MÜLLER, 1774), espécie exótica de bivalve, pertencente à família Corbiculidae, tem sido alvo de interesse de muitas pesquisas, por sua grande capacidade de dispersão e por ter tornado-se um importante competidor com as espécies de bivalves nativos de água doce, fato que se torna potencial causador de desequilíbrio ecológico. No entanto, embora a literatura demonstre que C. fluminea tolere as alterações ambientais nos sistemas aquáticos, estudos em duas microbacias hidrográficas, uma da bacia do Rio Pardo e outra da bacia do Rio Mogi Guaçu, revelaram que há mortalidade destes moluscos, em trechos destas microbacias. Experimentos realizados com animais coletados demonstraram suscetibilidade à presença de sedimentos, em magnitude e escala temporal parametrizadas, correlatas aos índices encontrados na natureza. Os animais demonstraram intolerância a condições de turbidez acima de 150 UNT, apresentando mortalidade de cinqüenta por cento da população experimental entre 96 e 120 horas de exposição, com início de mortalidade em 72 horas. Análises laboratoriais dos animais experimentados revelaram a presença de sedimentos na cavidade palial, indicando ser esta a provável causa da mortalidade, uma vez que se utilizam do mecanismo da filtração para alimentarem-se. De maneira correlata, as microbacias hidrográficas estudadas, apresentam características importantes, como o manejo, os tipos e a cobertura dos solos, a declividade do terreno e a intensidade dos eventos hidrológicos, que podem ser contributivas para o carreamento de sedimentos, em função de processos erosivos, para os corpos dágua, transformando-se em fator determinante da mortalidade de C. flumínea. / The Asian clam Corbicula fluminea (Müller, 1774), exotic species of mollusk, belonging to the Corbiculidae family, has been the target of many research because of its great dispersal ability and to have developed into an important competitor with native species of freshwater, a fact that becomes potentially causer of ecological desequilibrium. However, although the literature shows that C. fluminea can tolerate environmental changes in aquatic systems, studies in two watersheds, one in Rio Pardo basin and another in Rio Mogi-Guaçu basin, revealed that there are mortality of these molluscs in points of these watersheds. Experiments conducted on animals collected at two points, demonstrated susceptibility to the presence of sediments, in magnitude and time scale parameterized, related to rates found in nature. The animals showed intolerance to the conditions of turbidity above 150 NTU, with a mortality rate of fifty percent of the experimental population between 96 and 120 hours of exposure, with early mortality in 72 hours. Laboratory testing showed the presence of sediment in the palial cavity, indicating that this is the likely cause of mortality, since it uses the mechanism of filtration to feed themselves. Way related, the watersheds studied have important characteristics, such as management, types and land cover, slope of the terrain and intensity of hydrological events, which may be contributory to the carrying of sediments, due to erosion, for water bodies, becoming a determining factor in mortality of C. fluminea.

Corbicula fluminea (MÜLLER, 1774), espécie exótica de bivalve, pertencente à família Corbiculidae, tem sido alvo de interesse de muitas pesquisas, por sua grande capacidade de dispersão e por ter tornado-se um importante competidor com as espécies de bivalves nativos de água doce, fato que se torna potencial causador de desequilíbrio ecológico. No entanto, embora a literatura demonstre que C. fluminea tolere as alterações ambientais nos sistemas aquáticos, estudos em duas microbacias hidrográficas, uma da bacia do Rio Pardo e outra da bacia do Rio Mogi Guaçu, revelaram que há mortalidade destes moluscos, em trechos destas microbacias. Experimentos realizados com animais coletados demonstraram suscetibilidade à presença de sedimentos, em magnitude e escala temporal parametrizadas, correlatas aos índices encontrados na natureza. Os animais demonstraram intolerância a condições de turbidez acima de 150 UNT, apresentando mortalidade de cinqüenta por cento da população experimental entre 96 e 120 horas de exposição, com início de mortalidade em 72 horas. Análises laboratoriais dos animais experimentados revelaram a presença de sedimentos na cavidade palial, indicando ser esta a provável causa da mortalidade, uma vez que se utilizam do mecanismo da filtração para alimentarem-se. De maneira correlata, as microbacias hidrográficas estudadas, apresentam características importantes, como o manejo, os tipos e a cobertura dos solos, a declividade do terreno e a intensidade dos eventos hidrológicos, que podem ser contributivas para o carreamento de sedimentos, em função de processos erosivos, para os corpos dágua, transformando-se em fator determinante da mortalidade de C. flumínea. / The Asian clam Corbicula fluminea (Müller, 1774), exotic species of mollusk, belonging to the Corbiculidae family, has been the target of many research because of its great dispersal ability and to have developed into an important competitor with native species of freshwater, a fact that becomes potentially causer of ecological desequilibrium. However, although the literature shows that C. fluminea can tolerate environmental changes in aquatic systems, studies in two watersheds, one in Rio Pardo basin and another in Rio Mogi-Guaçu basin, revealed that there are mortality of these molluscs in points of these watersheds. Experiments conducted on animals collected at two points, demonstrated susceptibility to the presence of sediments, in magnitude and time scale parameterized, related to rates found in nature. The animals showed intolerance to the conditions of turbidity above 150 NTU, with a mortality rate of fifty percent of the experimental population between 96 and 120 hours of exposure, with early mortality in 72 hours. Laboratory testing showed the presence of sediment in the palial cavity, indicating that this is the likely cause of mortality, since it uses the mechanism of filtration to feed themselves. Way related, the watersheds studied have important characteristics, such as management, types and land cover, slope of the terrain and intensity of hydrological events, which may be contributory to the carrying of sediments, due to erosion, for water bodies, becoming a determining factor in mortality of C. fluminea.

American Electric Power's (AEP) coal-fired Clinch River Plant, a power-generating facility in Carbo, Russell County, Virginia (USA), has impaired Clinch River biota through toxic spills in 1967 and 1970, and effluent copper (Cu) concentrations that were reported to have exceeded water quality criteria from 1985-1989. These impacts have provided impetus for many research projects addressing the absence of bivalves, including federally protected species of native mussels (Unionoidea), from sites influenced by CRP effluent. Modifications in CRP effluent during 1987 and 1993 drastically reduced Cu levels and warranted the present study, which assessed long-term biological recovery in Clinch River biota near the CRP. In 2000-2001, surveys of benthic macroinvertebrate communities and instantaneous measures of effluent toxicity did not foretell significant reductions in survivorship and growth of field-caged Asian clams (Corbicula fluminea) at sites downstream of the CRP. More importantly, these results indicated renewed toxicity in CRP effluent. Additional transplant studies using two enclosure types were conducted to isolate effects attributable to CRP effluent from the potentially confounding effects of substrate variability among study sites. While it was found that mean growth of clams was greatest in the enclosure that minimized substrate variability (p=0.0157), both enclosure types clearly distinguished significant impairment of survivorship and growth at sites downstream of the CRP discharge, and strengthened the association between impairment and CRP effluent. An intensive field investigation was undertaken to determine whether impairment observed in transplant studies extended to resident bivalves. During 2001-2002, densities and age structures of C. fluminea and distributions of mussels suggested that impairment indeed extended to resident bivalves for a distance of 0.5 to 0.6 km downstream of the CRP discharge. Impairment of bivalves was less evident below (1) a fly ash landfill and (2) coal mining activities and low-volume leachate from a bottom ash settling pond. With respect to long-term recovery, modifications in CRP effluent treatment have reduced Cu concentrations from an average of 436 mg/L in 1985-1989 to 13 mg/L in 1991-2002. Subsequently, Cu body burdens of Asian clams (Corbicula fluminea) transplanted within CRP influence have decreased from 442% of levels accumulated at reference sites in 1986, to 163% of these levels in 2002. The reduction in effluent Cu largely explains recovery of most benthic macroinvertebrate community parameters (e.g., richness, diversity) at influenced sites from levels that were typically less than 70% of reference levels, to levels that frequently range from 80 to greater than 100% of reference levels. Nevertheless, bivalves remain impaired downstream of the CRP; survivorship and growth of C. fluminea transplanted to CRP-influenced sites have typically been less than 40 and 20% of reference values, respectively. Furthermore, C. fluminea has seldom been encountered within CRP influence for nearly two decades. Likewise, native mussels remain absent within CRP influence, but recent surveys suggest their downstream distributions are more proximate to the CRP discharge than has been reported previously. A preliminary assessment of factors potentially contributing to toxicity revealed that (1) water reclaimed from settling basins for discharge with CRP effluent significantly impaired fecundity of ceriodaphnids at concentrations of 50%, (2) LC50 values for industrial treatment chemicals were misrepresented on Material Safety Data Sheets and consequently, were subject to misapplication by operators, (3) Cu concentrations of 96 mg/L significantly impaired growth of Asian clams in artificial stream testing, and (4) effluent Al exceeded acute and chronic water quality criteria, suggesting this ion should receive further consideration in future studies. / Master of Science