The aim of this thesis is to contribute to the risk methodology field by introducing a method that covers both economic and information security aspects. The aim is to provide a way for practitioners to get results that is enough for decision makers to make valid and well-grounded decisions. There are a lot of traditional risk assessment methods that focus on information security. There are also CBA (Cost-Benefit Analysis) methods that are used to make sure investments are cost-effective and provide value for the organization. The aim of this thesis is to combine those and see if they can be merged to one risk assessment method to increase the value of the result. CBA will be added to a more traditional risk assessment method called IRAM2. The thesis will evaluate if they are suited to be used together and if it provides a more valuable result when combining them than only using one of them. The research method that has been used in this study is ADR. It has been used as a way of working when producing a new hybrid method together with some design principles regarding how to combine traditional risk management with economic equations.

The deployment of a modern road system, with all necessary infrastructure needed for users to travel in safety and comfort, requires high levels of financial investments. The expenses with substantial maintenance and early reconstruction of our tracks are unacceptable, as we have field and laboratory equipment that allows us for a better understanding of materials and design methods. Thus, this research had as general objectives structuring a database with materials and typical elastic parameters of flexible pavements of Rio Grande do Sul roads, through the process of modulus backcalculation, and determine the best structural options regarding the cost-benefit relationship, making flexible pavement project engineers job easier. There were got the resilient modules of five federal highways located in our state (BR 158, BR 285, BR 287, BR 290 e BR 392), through backcalculated deflectometric basins collected with FWD equipment, provided by DNIT. After the application of a statistical filter based on the coefficient of variation percentage, in order to eliminate the spurious data, a typical module database of the resilient materials evaluated was generated. Based on the data and on the literature, there were defined structural groups based on different structural assemblies through different combinations between resilient modules and thicknesses of layers commonly used in flexible pavements. Using mechanistic analysis concepts, it was evaluated by the AEMC software, specific tensile strains in lower fiber coating (t), and subgrade top compression (c), which, later subsidize the implementation of performance models for fatigue and permanent deformation consolidated in the literature, enabling obtaining the N number of standard axles for each structural assembly set. At the same time, using DNIT road cost system (SICRO II), pavement services were budget, determining the cost per km for the structures previously defined. Comparing the cost/km and critical N data (evaluated from the comparison of results obtained by the models of performance) there was obtained the cost/benefit ratio for all data sets. Evaluating the 100 most economic positions, it is observed that 100% of structural assemblies have the highest arbitrated asphalt concrete thicknesses (12.5 cm). It is also evident, the influence that the asphalt concrete has, as 88% of occurrences among the top 100 positions have the highest resilient arbitrated module. Thus, it is concluded that the variables that produce the best cost/benefit relationship are the modulus and the thickness of the asphalt concrete layer. / A implantação de sistemas viários modernos, com toda infraestrutura necessária para que o usuário trafegue com segurança e conforto, requer elevados níveis de investimentos financeiros. Os gastos substanciais com manutenção e reconstrução precoce de nossos pavimentos são inaceitáveis, uma vez que dispomos de equipamentos de campo e laboratório que permitam melhor entendimento acerca dos materiais e métodos de projeto. Desta forma, esta pesquisa teve como objetivos gerais estruturar-se um banco de dados com materiais e parâmetros elásticos típicos de pavimentos flexíveis do Rio Grande do Sul, através do processo de retroanálise, determinando-se as melhores opções estruturais com vistas à relação custo-benefício, facilitando o trabalho de engenheiros em projetos de pavimentos flexíveis. Foram obtidos os módulos resilientes de cinco rodovias federais localizadas no estado (BR 158, BR 285, BR 287, BR 290 e BR 392), através de retroanálise das bacias deflectométricas coletadas com o equipamento FWD, disponibilizadas pelo DNIT. Após a aplicação de um filtro estatístico baseado no coeficiente de variação percentual, no intuito de eliminarem-se os dados espúrios, gerou-se um banco de dados de módulos resilientes típicos dos materiais avaliados. A partir do banco de dados e de consulta bibliográfica, definiram-se conjuntos estruturais por meio de diferentes combinações entre módulos resilientes e espessuras de camadas comumente utilizadas em pavimentos flexíveis. Utilizando-se os conceitos de análise mecanicista, avaliou-se através do software AEMC, as deformações específicas de tração na fibra inferior do revestimento (t), e de compressão no topo do subleito (c), as quais, posteriormente, subsidiaram a aplicação de modelos de desempenho para fadiga e deformação permanente consolidados na literatura, permitindo a obtenção do número N de eixos padrões para cada conjunto estrutural definido. Em paralelo, empregando-se o sistema de custos rodoviários (SICRO II) do DNIT, orçaram-se os serviços de pavimentação, determinando-se o custo/km para as estruturas previamente definidas. Cruzando-se os dados de custo/km e N crítico (avaliado a partir da comparação dos resultados obtidos pelos modelos de desempenho), obteve-se a relação custo/benefício para todos os conjuntos de dados. Avaliando-se as 100 posições mais econômicas, observa-se que 100% dos conjuntos estruturais possuem as maiores espessuras de concreto asfáltico arbitradas (12,5 cm). Percebese também, a influência do módulo do concreto asfáltico, onde, 88 % das ocorrências entre as 100 primeiras posições possuem o maior módulo resiliente arbitrado. Desta forma, conclui-se que as variáveis que produzem as melhores relações custo/benefício são o módulo e a espessura da camada de concreto asfáltico.

This compilation dissertation consists of four essays with the common theme of welfare analysis of long-term public investments. The first two essays focus on analysis of climate change mitigation, i.e., the social cost of carbon dioxide. The third essay focuses on cost-benefit analysis (CBA) of transport investment projects, while the last essay takes a broader perspective on welfare analysis. Essay 1: The Temporal Aspects of the Social Cost of Greenhouse Gases. The purpose of Essay 1 is to investigate the temporal aspects of the social cost of greenhouse gases. I find that the calculation period should ultimately be modeled to be consistent with the discount rate and that the “global-warming potential” concept is unsuitable for calculation of the social cost of GHGs other than carbon dioxide. Essay 2: Avoiding path dependence of distributional weights: Lessons from climate change economic assessments. In Essay 2, I explore shortcomings in income weighting in evaluation of climate change policy. In short, in previous versions of two of the most important existing models, regional economic growth is double counted. The proposed alternative approaches yield about 20–40% higher values of SCCO2 than the old approach. Essay 3: Does uncertainty make cost-benefit analyses pointless? In Essay 3, the aim is to investigate to what extent CBA improves the selection decision of projects when uncertainties are taken into account, using a simulation-based approach on real data of infrastructure investments. The results indicate that, in line with previous literature, CBA is a rather robust tool and considerably increases the quality of decision making compared with a random selection mechanism, even when high levels of uncertainty are considered. Essay 4: Household Production and the Elasticity of Marginal Utility of Consumption. In Essay 4, I develop a new model to show that omission of household production in a previous model leads to bias when the elasticity of marginal utility of consumption, EMUC, is estimated. I further offer new, unbiased estimates based on current evidence of the included parameters, suggesting a lower bound of EMUC at about 0.9.

Abstract This thesis explores whether usability cost-benefit analysis is helpful when applied to commercial and open source software (OSS) development contexts. First, the thesis examines the differences and commonalities among the existing usability cost-benefit analysis models. The results indicate that there are considerable variations in the usability cost-benefit analysis literature in how the different categories of usability costs and benefits are identified and documented. Second, the thesis examines how well the existing usability cost-benefit considerations fit into practice in closed source software development. The results indicate that there are considerable risks of failure when using usability cost-benefit considerations in the commercial development context, when the inherent costs of usability activities become apparent, concrete, and measurable. Conversely, the potential benefits of better usability remain vague, uncertain, and unconvincing to the management. In order to build better usability cost-benefit models and minimize the potential that the models have unforeseen inherent risks, as outlined in this thesis, researchers should focus strongly on bringing forward the possible benefits of usability instead of focusing on the costs of designing and implementing user interfaces that would be realized in any case, regardless of the usability activities. Third, the thesis identifies the parallels and differences between open source software development and closed source software development in order to identify how usability costs and benefits fit into OSS development. The usability costs and benefits specific to OSS development are reflected in the experiences of bringing usability into the OSS development context. The results indicate that it is possible to fit usability cost-benefit considerations into the OSS development context, even though there are no apparent financial or resource factors to be considered. Furthermore, to fit usability cost-benefit considerations into the OSS development context, the philosophy, principles, hierarchical structure, community structure, and characteristics of OSS development must be considered. Usability cost-benefit considerations that fit into the OSS development context might help convince core developers that usability activities are important and should be integrated into the project roadmap. / Tiivistelmä Väitöskirjassa tutkitaan käytettävyyden kustannus-hyöty -analyysin soveltamista kaupalliseen ja avoimen lähdekoodin ohjelmistojen (OSS) ohjelmistokehitykseen. Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan ensin käytettävyyden kustannus-hyöty -analyysimallien eroja ja yhteisiä piirteitä. Tulokset osoittavat käytettävyyden kustannus-hyöty -analyysimalleissa olevan huomattavia eroja siinä, miten eri käytettävyyden kustannuksia ja hyötyjä on tunnistettu. Toiseksi tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan miten hyvin nykyiset käytettävyyden kustannus-hyöty -analyysimallit sopivat käytännössä kaupallisten ohjelmistojen kehittämisessä. Tulokset osoittavat, että on olemassa huomattavia epäonnistumisen riskejä käytettäessä käytettävyyden kustannus-hyötynäkökohtia käytettävyystoimien oikeuttamiseen. Käytettävyyden kustannukset voivat tulla yrityksen johdon näkökulmasta konkreettisiksi ja mitattaviksi, kun taas mahdolliset paremman käytettävyyden hyödyt voivat jäädä epämääräisiksi, epävarmoiksi ja epäuskottaviksi. Parempien käytettävyyden kustannus-hyöty –mallien kehittämiseksi ja odottamattomien riskien minimoimiseksi mallien suunnittelussa tulisi keskittyä erityisesti paremman käytettävyyden tuomiin mahdollisiin etuihin, koska osa kustannuksista toteutuisi joka tapauksessa käytettävyystoimista riippumatta. Kolmanneksi tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan eroja ja yhtäläisyyksiä avoimen lähdekoodin ohjelmistojen kehittämisessä ja kaupallisessa suljetun lähdekoodin ohjelmistojen kehittämisessä, sekä miten käytettävyyden kustannukset ja hyödyt soveltuvat OSS kehityksessä käytettävyystoimien oikeuttamiseen. Käytettävyyden kustannuksia ja hyötyjä OSS -kehityksessä heijastetaan suhteessa kokemuksiin käytettävyystoimista OSS -projekteissa. Tulokset osoittavat, että on mahdollista soveltaa käytettävyyden kustannus-hyöty -näkökulmia OSS kehityksessä, vaikka OSS kehityksessä ei olekaan ilmeisiä huomioitavia taloudellisia tai resurssitekijöitä. Käytettävyyden kustannus-hyöty -näkökulmien soveltaminen OSS kehityksessä edellyttää OSS kehityksen filosofian, periaatteiden, hierarkkisen rakenteen, yhteisön rakenteen sekä OSS kehityksen ominaispiirteiden ottamista huomioon. OSS -kehitykseen paremmin soveltuvien käytettävyyden kustannus-hyöty –näkökulmien avulla voidaan vakuuttaa OSS -projektin pääkehittäjiä ja yhteisöä käytettävyystoimien tärkeydestä ja nämä toimet voidaan saada osaksi projektin ohjelmistokehitystä.

Abstract Deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the subthalamic nucleus (STN) has been gaining importance in the treatment of advanced Parkinson's disease. This study was undertaken to evaluate the beneficial effects of bilateral STN stimulation on patient's clinical symptoms and quality of life related to the potential risks and side effects of the treatment. A consecutive series of 42 patients operated on for Parkinson's disease with STN DBS in Oulu University Hospital were included. A subgroup of these patients was evaluated using the Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS), neuropsychological tests, and Health Related Quality of Life (HRQoL) instruments i.e. the Parkinson's Disease Questionnaire (PDQ-39) and the Finnish version of the Nottingham Health Profile (NHP). The costs of the treatment were calculated from the perspective of the health care provider. The possible effects of bilateral STN-operation on cardiovascular autonomic function were analyzed by measuring various time- and frequency domain indexes as well as non-linear indexes of heart rate variability (HRV) from 24-hour EKG recording before and 12 months after the operation. This study showed that STN DBS significantly improves the clinical symptoms and HRQoL of parkinsonian patients. The dyskinesia and clinical fluctuation scores were reduced very significantly in the UPDRS IV subscale. The clinical fluctuations were reduced by 53 %. After DBS best motor response (UPDRS III) scores also improved significantly. The HRQoL measured with both instruments improved significantly. Improvement was seen in the PDQ-39 summary index and the subscales of activities of daily living, emotional well-being, stigma and bodily discomfort. Only communication became worse during the follow-up. There was a statistically significant improvement in the score of the subscales of NHP measuring problems with energy, sleep, emotional reactions and social isolation. One patient died from pulmonary embolism and another contracted a late postoperative intracerebral hemorrhage leading to a permanent deterioration of her neurological condition to the bedridden stage. Other complications were much milder. Clinical improvement and improvement in HRQoL were positively correlated. STN DBS does not influence tonic autonomic cardiovascular regulation. The incremental costs of performing bilateral STN DBS in Finland compared to preoperative medical treatment amounted to an average of 25 591 EUR per patient during the first postoperative year. The majority of parkinsonian patients experienced significant and long lasting relief in their motor symptoms and an improvement in HRQoL following STN stimulation.

The erection of tollgates along the N1 freeway has triggered a great deal of interest. As a result of the toll fees, traffic has been diverted to alternative roads. This study investigates how traffic diverted from the toll road affect the welfare of users of the alternative road. The literature review provides a theoretical framework of economic impact assessment and road pricing. Furthermore, the literature study reviews previous studies of a similar nature and compare them with the findings of this study. There is no conclusive evidence that diversion of traffic from the N1 causes congestion on the R101 and has a negative impact on the economy of the region. On the contrary, evidence suggests that there was an initial diversion of traffic when the toll came into operation but that is slowly filtered back after six months. In the application of the RED model, economic benefits are derived from user benefits, which is a function of savings in VOC’s and time of normal and generated traffic on a road or saving due to an improvement in road safety, resulting from improved roads. A decrease in traffic has a measurable effect on vehicle travel speeds and travel time only when the roads are significantly congested. In the case of scenario 1 (including diversion), frequent maintenance needs to be performed under increased traffic. Increased traffic due to “diverted traffic” causes congestion in accidents and travelling time, which is a cost to the economy. Under scenario 2 (excluding diversion), it is assumed that ADT will return to normal. Due to lower levels of congestion and travelling times would be faster, while maintenance costs and accident rates would decrease. Scenario 2 is selected as being economically the most feasible option. It is clear that the R101 cannot cope with the current levels of traffic and congestion. One can speculate about the causes of the congestion but in order to derive at a solution to the problem more research needs to be done on the cause of the congestion in order to resolve the problem. / Dissertation (Magister Commercii)--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Economics / unrestricted

This thesis covers the implementation of ex post cost-benefit analysis (CBA) applied to specific sport event in the Czech Republic, specifically Biathlon World Championships, which was held in Nové Město na Moravě in 2013. The results of determinative criterion indicators reliably exceeded the required values, investment project can be considered as economically feasible. Concurrently the event has generated positive cash flow therefore we can talk about the feasibility of the project. Overall, the project can be recommended for realization, because brings more benefits than costs to interested parties.

The thesis focuses on impacts of shortage of places in kindergarten in the Czech Republic's tax revenues due to reduced participation of women in labor market. Within the work is described the situation on imaginary kindergarten market. The supply side is made of kindergartens and the demand side is made of children between age 3 and 6 and their parents. Comparasion of cost expended on establishing new positions in kinderkarten with tax revenue is illustrated by cost benefit analysis. The goal of cost benefit analysis in this work is to prove or disprove expediency hypothesis of establishing new positions in kindergartens in comparison with total lost tax revenue.

Många infrastrukturprojekt involverar byggnation i berg där det alltid finns osäkerheter att hantera, dessa kan minskas genom att utföra fler undersökningar. Eftersom förundersökningar i berg är relativt dyra gäller det att hitta en balans där fältprogrammet är ekonomiskt försvarbart. Ett området som studerats det senaste åren är att utreda kostnadsnyttan som förundersökningarna tillför. Metoden som har utvecklats kallas datavärdesanalys och används för att kunna bedöma kostnadsnyttan av att utföra ytterligare förundersökningar innan de är utförda. Syfte med studien är att utvärdera kostnadsnyttan av ytterligare förundersökningar för en injekterings- och bergförstärkningsdesign i ett riktigt bergbyggnadsprojekt. Detta kommer att göras med en utvecklad statistisk metod av datavärdesanalysen.  Förväntade resultat från studien var: Undersöka hur insamlad data från tidigare förundersökningar i projektet kan användas för att bedöma sannolikheterna i datavärdesanalysen. Utveckla datavärdesanalysen för att vara tillämpbar i ett bergbyggnadsprojekt. Testa metoden i ett byggprojekt med riktig data och kostnader. Utvärdera om den framtagna metoden är tillämpbar i ett bergbyggnadsprojekt. I studien upprättades först två olika typdesigner för injekteringen och bergförstärkningen, baserat på en begränsad mängd data som fanns tillgänglig för en utvald sektion (fall 1). Mängden data som var tillgänglig i fall 1 är liknande som i en förstudie. Sedan upprättades två nya typdesigner för vardera område där kompletterande information från högkvalitativ data från kärnborrhål, hammarborrhål och vattenförlustmätning adderades (fall 2). Sannolikheterna i datavärdesanalysen bedömdes genom att använda en statistik metod. Den statistiska metoden baserades på en monte carlo simulering där stupningen på brottet antogs variera för bergförstärkningen och konduktiviteten antogs variera för injekteringen.  Studien påvisade goda resultat för att datavärdesanalyser skulle kunna implementeras i projekt som ett beslutsunderlag. Problematiken som kan uppstå i projekt där man har olika åsikter om hur mycket förundersökningar som behövs skulle kunna elimineras genom att använda datavärdesanalyser på den tillgängliga informationen samt nyttan av mer information. Detta är viktigt ur ett samhällsekonomiskt perspektiv. Det är dock viktigt att personen som använder verktyget förstår hur metoden är uppbyggd och dess antaganden. Gör man inte det finns det stor risk att beslut fattas på grund av felaktigheter som kan finnas i både indata och misstolkad utdata. Vidare rekommenderas att metoden utvecklas innan den används i ett riktigt projekt. Exempel på detta kan vara att göra mindre antaganden. Det kan också vara att försöka koppla datavärdesanalysen till var man har utfört undersökningen på sträckan man studerar. Man skulle även kunna inkludera fler parametrar i sin monte carlo simulering. Slutligen kan man, för att göra metoden mer användarvänlig, skapa en bättre plattform som den kan användas på. / Many infrastructure projects involve construction in rock, where there are a lot of uncertainties to deal with. These uncertainties can be reduced by performing preliminary investigations. Since preliminary investigations are expensive, it is necessary to find a balance where the field program is financially justifiable. In recent years cost-benefit analysis has been studied to investigate the benefits that preliminary investigations add. The method that has been developed is called value of information analysis and it assesses the cost-benefit of doing more investigations before they are performed.  The purpose of this report is to evaluate the benefits of additional preliminary investigations in a real project that could improve the grouting and rock support designs. The studied method is VOIA (Value of Information Analysis) based on statistical probabilities. The expected result of the study was: Investigate how collected data from preliminary investigations can be used to determine the probabilities used in the VOIA concept based on statistics. Develop a VOIA concept that is based on statistics and can be applied in a real project. Test the concept in a real project with real data and costs. Evaluate however the statistical approach was suitable to be applied in a real project. First part of the study consists of establishing two basic designs for grouting and rock support, that is based on a limited amount of information for a certain section of the project (case 1). The data available in case 1 is similar to a desk study. For the second part of the study the previous designs were updated and adjusted according to the additional information, from high quality investigations such as core drilling and water pressure test (case 2). The probabilities in the value of information analysis were evaluated using a statistical approach. The method was based on a monte carlo simulation where the dip of the plane was assumed to vary for the reinforcement design. For the grouting design the conductivity was assumed to vary.   Conclusions from this report proves that a statistical approach for the VOIA concept has great possibilities of being applied in projects as a tool before making decisions regarding preliminary investigations. The problem that often occur in projects today concerning different opinions about the amount of investigations needed, could be eliminated if a well constructed statistical model can be used that has the possibility of adjusting to the amount of available data. This would be beneficial from a socioeconomic perspective. However it's important that the user of this approach understand the purpose of every assumption and understands how to interpret the output data. Otherwise, decisions can be based on errors made by assumptions or bad input data.   Furthermore, recommendations is presented in this report regarding some areas that need to be developed before it is suitable to apply the method in a real project. One is to construct the VOIA concept based on fewer assumptions. Another is to connect the VOIA method to the geographical point of where the investigations have been made. There is also a possibility to include more parameters in the monte carlo simulation. Finally, to construct a more applicable tool in a project, a user friendly platform to conduct the analysis from is a great area to develop.

<p>Municipal wastewater treatment plants treat wastewater such as domestic and industrial sewage and recirculates the clean water back into nature’s waterways. However, the wastewater treatment process is costly and complex. The cost of running a municipal wastewater treatment plant is funded via ratepayer fee dollars from customers and therefore receives a fixed budget for which to run the plant according to environmental standards. A local initiative was established to upgrade a Midwestern municipal wastewater facility to utilize biomass renewable energy to a greater extent than what is used by the wastewater facility. The first phase of the initiative tested the suitability of utilizing organic substrates from local industrial plants with the potential to produce larger amounts of biogas via anaerobic digestion. The analysis evaluated the technical and financial viability of utilizing biomass technologies to help power the facility efficiently and economically. The financial and technical analysis will include a cost-benefit analysis by comparing current and forecasted natural gas demand and costs for running heating the WWTP to biogas produced by the anerobic digesters. The results of the research study found that the industrial waste substrates are suitable for anaerobic digestion and yield a higher biogas potential than what is currently used for anaerobic digestion by the WWTP. The initial financial analysis found it is feasible and economical, for at least certain months of the year, for the WWTP to refrain from purchasing natural gas and instead utilize the produced biogas.</p>