Traditional approaches to modeling environmental resources withinsecure or illdefined property rights are based on partial equilibrium models. This dissertation takes the view that since insecure tenure arrangements may be difficult to remedy, effects of national and sectoral policies should be analyzed in a general equilibrium framework in order to take unintended side effects on the the utilization of environmental resources into account. Specifically, two case studies on deforestation in Costa Rica and land degradation in Sri Lanka are developed. The main conclusions of this exercise is that although partial models may be useful in analyzing policies aimed at the environmental resource in question or reforms in the property rights system, economywide policies and sectoral policies aimed at other sectors may have large effects on environmental resource utilization. When the environmental quality is a concern, a general equilibrium framework shoul be used. In the case of Costa Rica, the results indicate that policies such as minimum wage legislation and capital taxation have significant effects on deforestation. The deforestation effects should be taken into account in policy making, and mesaures to mitigate deforestation should accompany these policies. Similar results hold for the case study of land degradation in Sri Lanka. / Diss. Stockholm : Handelshögskolan 1997

This dissertation comprises four chapters. The unifying theme is the evaluation of environmental programs. Specifically, each chapter examines some facet of the impacts of protected areas. The first chapter examines the heterogeneous environmental and economic impacts of protected areas in Costa Rica. Previous studies suggest that Costa Rica's protected area system induced both reduced deforestation and alleviated poverty. We demonstrate that these environmental and social impacts were spatially heterogeneous. Importantly, the characteristics associated with the most avoided deforestation are the characteristics associated with the least poverty alleviation. In other words, the same characteristics that have limited the conservation effectiveness of protected areas may have improved the social welfare impacts of these areas. These results suggest that `win-win' efforts to protect ecosystems and alleviate poverty may be possible when policymakers are satisfied with low levels of each outcome, but tradeoffs exist when more of either outcome is desired. The second chapter explores in more detail the heterogeneous impacts of protected areas in Costa Rica and Thailand. In particular we investigate the potential for protected areas to act as a mechanism for poverty traps and use semiparametric models to identify the spatial congruence of environmental and economic outcomes. We find no evidence that protected areas trap historically poorer areas in poverty. In fact, we find that poorer areas at baseline appear to have the greatest levels of poverty reduction as a result of protection. However, we do find that the spatial characteristics associated with the most poverty alleviation are not necessarily the characteristics associated with the most avoided deforestation. We demonstrate how an understanding of these spatially heterogeneous responses to protection can be used to generate suitability maps that identify locations in which both environmental and poverty alleviation goals are most likely to be achieved. In the third chapter we address the mechanisms through which protected areas affect economic outcomes. Using recently developed quasi-experimental methods and rich biophysical and demographic data, we quantify the causal post-treatment mechanism impacts of tourism, infrastructure development and ecosystem services on poverty, due to the establishment of protected areas in Costa Rica prior to 1980. We find that nearly 50% of the poverty reduction estimated in a previous study can be attributed to tourism. In addition, although the mechanism estimates for the infrastructure and ecosystem services proxies are negligible, we argue that the results provide evidence that enhanced ecosystem services from the establishment of protected areas has likely helped to reduce poverty. The results provide additional information to policy makers that wish to enhance the future establishment of protected areas with complementary policy. The final chapter studies the economic impacts of protected areas in Bolivia. We find that municipalities with at least 10% of their area occupied by a protected area between 1992 and 2000 exhibited differentially greater levels of poverty reduction between 1992 and 2001 compared to similar municipalities unaffected by protected areas. We find that the results are robust to a number of econometric specifications, spillover analyses and a placebo study. Although the overarching results that Bolivia's protected areas were associated with poverty reduction are similar to previous studies , the underlying results are subtly, but significantly, different. In previous studies it was found that controlling for key observable covariates lead to fundamentally antithetical results compared to naive estimates. Conversely, these results indicate that naive estimates lead to an over-estimation of the poverty reducing impacts of protected areas. The results expose the heterogeneity of protected area impacts across countries and, therefore, underscore the importance of country-level impact evaluations in order to build the global knowledge base regarding the socioeconomic impacts of protected areas.

Environmental education has been a prominent approach to achieve sustainable development and counteract the megatrend of environmental degradation. In Costa Rica, environmental education has been adopted as an essential tool for protecting and improving the natural environment. The people of Costa Rica have emphasized an awareness of environmental issues and an ability to actively engage in environmental education and sustainable development programs. International development organizations have invested in development programs to establish or improve sustainable development. In order to understand whether international development organizations are achieving their stated mission and goals for implementing development programs, donors and funding agencies usually require that the sponsored programs be evaluated. Unfortunately, there is a growing concern that the current practice of development evaluation limits the reporting of impacts to be fundamentally inconsistent which has created incentives for evaluations to include positive bias instead of serving the purpose to improve organizational decision-making. This research study proposed to evaluate the reaction of a community in Limon, Costa Rica to development programs using an operational framework of evaluation and logic models found in the review of literature. The researcher adopted a naturalistic case study approach intended to retain the natural context of the community setting and provide a holistic understanding of community perceptions. Qualitative methods based in rapid rural appraisal were used to collect data from a purposeful sample and a stratified purposeful sample within the population. Data analysis was conducted at both the research site during data collection and after all data was collected. The researcher incorporated the constant comparative method to determine consistencies, anomalies, patterns, and emerging themes during data analysis. Three overarching themes emerged as a result of the study: (a) community development with subcategories describing community improvement, collaboration with the international development organization, integration of individuals and groups within the community, and the sustainability of projects, (b) education with subcategories expanding on ideas and motivation, learning, and inspiration for the children, and (c) culture with subcategories that discussed community culture, the organizational culture of the international development organization, and relationships.

Pour une petite communauté autochtone du Costa Rica, la culture de bananes plantains constitue la plus importante source de revenus. Afin d'améliorer la qualité du produit et de répondre aux exigences des marchés d'exportations, les agriculteurs et les agricultrices ont recours aux pesticides. Ces derniers représentent toutefois des risques considérables tant pour leur santé que pour celle de leur famille. De surcroît, ces risques sont accentués par le contexte de pauvreté et d'isolement de la communauté ainsi que par l'usage abondant des pesticides dans des conditions peu sécuritaires. Dans l'optique où une appropriation des connaissances des risques des pesticides et des méthodes pour les réduire contribuerait à la santé de sa population, cette recherche vise à mieux comprendre les dynamiques de la diffusion d'informations dans le contexte d'isolement et de pauvreté de cette communauté. En partant du principe que l'adoption de comportements et les manières de percevoir des risques sont entre autres influencées par les relations interpersonnelles et leurs structures, des notions des approches sociales et culturelles de la perception du risque et des réseaux sociaux ont été utilisées pour découvrir les facteurs susceptibles d'influencer le processus de diffusion d'informations dans la communauté. En ce sens, des entrevues semi-dirigées ont été menées auprès d'agriculteurs, d'agricultrices et de leur conjoint, recrutés par la méthode d'échantillonnage partiellement stratifiée. Les résultats ont été analysés qualitativement et à l'aide des programmes Netdraw et Ucinet pour les réseaux sociaux et SPSS pour les analyses statistiques. D'une part, les résultats ont permis d'identifier certains facteurs qui risquent d'entraver la diffusion d'informations et l'adoption de comportements pour réduire les risques des pesticides sur la santé, notamment les bénéfices économiques à court terme de l'usage des pesticides primant sur les préoccupations pour la santé, une faible appropriation de la problématique des pesticides et une absence de sa prise en charge sociale. D'autre part, les résultats ont aussi mis en lumière l'importance des relations de discussions sur les pesticides et de l'information reçue de la part d'organisations dans l'adoption de comportements plus sécuritaires. Les résultats soulèvent également que les femmes exercent peu d'influence dans cette problématique et que leur position isolée dans les réseaux limite leur accès à l'information sur les pesticides. L'analyse des réseaux a aussi permis d'identifier des chemins de circulation de l'information sur les pesticides, distincts selon le genre et l'ethnie. Enfin, cette étude vient souligner l'intérêt à développer des connaissances sur les caractéristiques liées à la structure globale des relations interpersonnelles au sein de communautés et sur les manières dont elles peuvent influencer la diffusion d'informations et l'adoption de comportements. ______________________________________________________________________________ MOTS-CLÉS DE L’AUTEUR : Diffusion d'informations, Réseaux sociaux, Perceptions des risques, Pesticides en agriculture, Santé humaine.

In this thesis, I contemplate the ecotourism in theory and in practice. I use the case study of a solid waste crisis (2002-2004) in Tortuguero, Costa Rica, a turtle tourism destination, to explore: the consumptive nature of ecotourism, tourist perceptions of the environment, ecotourism aesthetics, local resistance to ecotourism development, local perceptions of ecotourism's environmental impacts, and the future of ecotourism. I used mixed methods including participant observation, semi-structured interviews, and on-site surveys to collect data. I conducted mainly qualitative analysis (thematic coding; adapted grounded theory) influenced by political ecology, environmental justice, resistance studies, tourism studies, and the geography of tourism. My use of environmental justice concepts to frame the solid waste crisis in Tortuguero, and the application of key concepts from Scott's (1981) Weapons of the Weak to local behavior and narratives both represent fairly novel applications in an ecotourism context. I attempted to move beyond a restricted case study by emphasizing characteristics shared between Tortuguero and other sites, in the hopes of contributing towards efforts to inject new theoretical applications into tourism studies. This case study reveals the consumptive side of ecotourism, and the analysis of tourist survey responses highlights the central role of aesthetics in ecotourism. This project challenges simplistic portrayals of ecotourism as 'benevolent and benign' (e.g. by highlighting its consumptive impacts and related injustices), and of ecotourists as more aware and altruistic than mass tourists (e.g. by presenting a heterogeneous group of respondents who none the less, stress aesthetics). It updates existing literature on Tortuguero by presenting data on tourist and local perceptions of Tortuguero, and by suggesting explanations for divergent perceptions of the park's role in ecotourism, for example. The evidence that I present of local resistance and waste-related injustices suggest that despite its high profile reputation, multimillion dollar annual revenues, improved local standards of living, and green turtle conservation successes, critical details and key voices have largely been 'left out of the story of ecotourism in Tortuguero'. I hope that his study contributes to encouraging the culture of 'greater ecotourism realism' that is needed in order to move forward. / Dissertation

<p>Remote sensing technologies offer an innovative way to study tropical forests and complement research from forest inventory plots. From a logistic standpoint, remote sensing mitigates some of the physical, political, and economic challenges that complicate terrestrial studies of tropical forests. From a biological standpoint, remotely sensed data can elucidate ecological phenomena and dynamics of tropical forests that may be challenging to observe on the ground. I conducted a digital aerial survey during the peak blooming period for <em>Dipteryx panamensis</em>. <em>D. panamensis</em> is a canopy emergent, keystone tree species within the lowland Atlantic forests of Costa Rica. The aerial survey occurred over Maquenque National Wildlife Refuge, which is situated in the proposed San Juan-La Selva Biological Corridor. Maquenque was decreed in 2005 to protect the last breeding habitat for the endangered Great Green Macaw (<em>Ara ambigua</em>) in Costa Rica. The Great Green Macaw depends on <em>D. panamensis</em> as its primary food and nesting resource. However, because of Costa Rica's complex deforestation history, the Great Green Macaw remains imperiled due to habitat fragmentation, degradation, and loss. Only 25 to 35 breeding pairs and 250 individuals likely persist in the country. My research had three main objectives. First, I evaluated a classification technique that capitalized on the unique spectral signature of blooming <em>D. panamensis</em> in order to detect this species using a pattern recognition approach. Second, I determined the landscape density and distribution of this tree species using results from the aerial survey and classification. I also noted environmental factors predicting potential <em>D. panamensis</em> habitat using a classification and regression tree (CART) model, and I subsequently calculated how much potential habitat exists in Costa Rica. Third, I identified environmental conditions that indicate potential breeding habitat for the Great Green Macaw using a CART model, and I calculated how much potential breeding habitat exists in Costa Rica. Results of the classification work indicate that <em>D. panamensis</em> can be identified based on its unique spectral signature. In particular, the IHS (intensity, hue, saturation) color space was effective at resolving this tree. Results of the density analysis suggest that canopy emergent <em>D. panamensis</em> trees occur at densities as high as 2 trees/hectare. This work demonstrates that <em>D. panamensis</em> exists in denser patches than previously determined from forest inventory plots. Environmental conditions that will support high densities of <em>D. panamensis</em> habitat occur between 45 and 125 meters in elevation and on soil with an acid and clay profile. Nearly 240,000 hectares could support high density patches of <em>D. panamensis</em> in Costa Rica. Potential Great Green Macaw breeding habitat is defined by the density of <em>D. panamensis</em> trees within its 550-hectare breeding territory. Approximately 67,000 hectares of Great Green Macaw breeding territory exist in Costa Rica. Ultimately, the conservation of both <em>D. panamensis</em> and the Great Green Macaw in Costa Rica may require a multinational partnership between Costa Rica and Nicaragua.</p> / Dissertation

<p>Over the last thirty years successful national economic development is considered participation in global industries, particularly in global value chains. Frequently, however, inclusion in these chains brings forth varied socioeconomic benefits for chain actors, acutely different ethnic and racial groups. Costa Rican participation in the tourism global value chain while heralded as a success story shows varied impacts for ethnoracial groups who are incorporated, excluded, and stratified in various forms. By comparing two communities in Costa Rica, Tamarindo and Cahuita, three main practices are apparent in determining the position of foreigners from the global North, Costa Ricans from the Central Valley, Afro-Costa Ricans, and Guanacastecans in the industry as workers or entrepreneur suppliers: (1) the role of <italic>governance structures</italic>, i.e., power dynamics between firms along the value chain and the importance of standards, formal and subjective; (2) <italic>institutions</italic>, including global private travel fairs, national tourism boards, and specific development policies; and (3) the dominance of environmental imagery and rural democracy narratives to <italic>market</italic> Costa Rica. Concretely, the development of global tourism in Costa Rica and its impact upon different groups is nuanced and it is a testament to both opportunities for local economic and social empowerment and stratification and marginalization.</p> / Dissertation

In the Central Valley of Costa Rica in the Department of Heredia, I investigated the soil chemical properties and microbial communities under four native shade tree species in a coffee agroforestry system. In the second year of the study, Effective Microorganisms, a microbial inoculant, was applied to examine its effect on soil chemistry. The shade tree species included in this study were Anonna muricata L., Diphysa americana Mill., Persea americana Mill., and Quercus spp. L. Plots measured 20 by 30 meters and were replicated three times for each shade tree species except for Quercus spp., which only had two replications. Twelve composite soil samples were collected from each plot in 2008 and again in 2009, and twelve composite foliar samples were taken from the coffee plants in each plot in 2008. The results of this study indicated that the species of native shade tree had a significant effect on soil ammonium-N, nitrate-N, total dissolved nitrogen and magnesium. Sun or shade position had a significant effect on dissolved organic nitrogen and dissolved organic carbon. The species of native shade tree also had a significant effect on the composition of soil microbial communities. PLFA analysis revealed a significant difference in soil fungi abundance in soil samples from Annona plots relative to those from Persea plots. Effective microorganisms in combination with the tree species, as well as in combination with species and sun or shade position, had a significant interaction effect on soil ammonium-N, with the EM-treated plots showing higher concentrations of soil ammonium-N. There was a significant positive correlation between soil pH and foliar calcium, as well as soil dissolved organic nitrogen and foliar %N, at p< 0.01. This study suggests that Quercus spp. is a tree species that may help to regulate the cycling of nitrogen in the coffee agroecosystem. Annona muricata appears to inhibit the action of some fungal species and may reduce the occurrence of fungal pathogens in the soil, although the present study did not explore this issue. Although Diphysa americana is a legume, it does not appear to increase the amount of soil nitrogen in the vicinity of the coffee plants themselves. All four tree species in this study improve coffee soils by increasing soil concentrations of dissolved organic nitrogen and dissolved organic carbon. Coffee yield data and long term observations on the health of the coffee plants would clarify whether one of these species is particularly beneficial, from an agronomic perspective, for the productivity of this coffee agroecosystem.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Rutgers University, 2009. / "Graduate Program in Communication, Information and Library Studies." Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis--Georg-August-Universität Göttingen. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references (p. 164-177).