Cette thèse a pour objectif de comprendre, dans une approche pluridisciplinaire, pourquoi et comment les États-Unis affirment continuellement leur leadership et leur influence dans la lutte globale contre la traite des personnes. Forte d’un corpus varié mêlant rapports internationaux, archives gouvernementales et non gouvernementales ou encore entretiens, cette étude postule que les États-Unis manifestent, depuis la période de l’entre-deux-guerres, leur capacité à exercer un leadership et une influence dans la lutte globale anti-traite. Cette recherche montre que la motivation des États-Unis à fabriquer et à diffuser ses propres normes anti-traite sur la scène internationale a toujours eu (de 1920 à nos jours) pour corollaire la promotion de valeurs socio-morales, notamment celles ayant trait aux politiques de genre et à la sexualité. Cependant, pour atteindre cet objectif, le style de leadership ainsi que les outils d’influence mobilisés diffèrent d’une période à une autre. Cette thèse permet d’examiner les vives querelles et compétitions institutionnelles entre le Congrès et le département d’État, particulièrement sur la façon dont les États-Unis devraient exercer leur puissance en matière en lutte globale anti-traite. L’étude met en évidence que c’est au tournant du siècle que les revendications du pouvoir législatif s’imposent, soit le rôle de vecteur et de leader du pays dans cette cause à l’échelle internationale, en privilégiant l’approche unilatérale. L’enjeu qui pousse les États-Unis à adopter l’approche du carrot-and-stick vis-à-vis des pays qui ne s’engagent pas dans cette lutte selon les standards étasuniens se situe dans le droit et la norme : il s’agit d’imposer l’adoption de leur propre législation fédérale aux autres pays, soit le TVPA (Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000, Loi 2000 relative à la protection des victimes de la traite). C’est ce que démontre l’étude de cas sur le Costa Rica. Le gouvernement costaricien appréhende la question de la traite des personnes en termes sécuritaires et non socio-moraux comme l’y incite Washington. Par conséquent, lors de l’évaluation annuelle mondiale effectuée par le département d’État, laquelle observe les efforts fournis en matière de lutte contre la traite des personnes, le Costa Rica se voit relégué dans une mauvaise catégorie, et ce depuis dix-sept ans. Enfin, au regard du leadership socio-moral des États-Unis en matière de lutte anti-traite, la coopération avec le Costa Rica s’organise surtout avec les ONG qui adhérent à la réponse socio-morale étasunienne. / The objective of this dissertation is to understand, from a multidisciplinary perspective, why and how the United States continually affirms its leadership and influence in the global fight on human trafficking. Supported by a wide range of sources, including international reports, government records and interviews, this study makes the assertion that, since the interwar period the United States has demonstrated its ability to lead and exert an influence in the global anti-trafficking fight. This research shows that the motivation of the United States to create and propagate its own anti-trafficking norms in the international sphere has always (since the 1920s) resulted in the promotion of socio-moral values—most notably those having to do with policies related to gender and sexuality. However, in order to achieve this objective, both the style of the United States’ leadership and the mechanisms of its influence have varied over the years. This dissertation examines the fierce quarrels and institutional competition between Congress and the Department of State, particularly regarding the manner in which the United States should exert its power in the global anti-trafficking fight. This study brings to light the fact that it is at the turn of the 21th century that demands on the US legislature are critical, specifically because of its role as a natural leader in this cause at the international level, favoring a unilateral approach. The challenge that forces the United States to adopt a carrot-andstick approach with countries that refuse to follow the American example in this fight is a legal one: it is to impose the adoption of their own federal legislation on other countries, specifically the TVPA (Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000). This is illustrated by the case study of Costa Rica. The Costa Rican government frames the question of human trafficking in terms of security and not socio-morals as encouraged by Washington. Consequently, in the U.S. State Department’s annual global review of efforts made to combat anti-trafficking, Cost Rica has been poorly ranked for the last 17 years. Finally, with respect to the socio-moral leadership of the United States in the fight against human trafficking, the cooperation of Costa Rica is mainly organized with NGOs who adopt the American socio-moral response stance.

Por meio do processo conhecido como bioprospecção, propõe-se a aplicação dos lucros obtidos com a comercialização de produtos, como fármacos, em ações para conservação biológica. O objetivo deste trabalho é verificar a importância deste instrumento para a conservação a partir de estudo de caso focado na experiência do Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidade (INBio), na Costa Rica. Os procedimentos metodológicos estão baseados nas estratégias de pesquisa de: a) estudo de caso; b) documental e c) pesquisa bibliográfica. O INBio, uma associação sem fins lucrativos, se empenhou na elaboração do inventário nacional da biodiversidade e firmou diversos contratos de bioprospecção, entre eles o comentado acordo com a indústria farmacêutica Merck. Alguns pontos positivos devem ser destacados a partir dessa experiência: geração de conhecimento sobre os recursos biológicos locais em função do inventário; criação de sistema de controle ao acesso e identificação dos materiais coletados; o aparato jurídico desenvolvido; aprimoramento da capacidade de negociação; disseminação de informação em publicações científicas; atividades voltadas à Educação Ambiental e apoio a pequenas e médias empresas nacionais no desenvolvimento de produtos baseados em recursos biológicos do país. Por outro lado, os dados analisados mostram que tem sido baixo o retorno financeiro do Instituto; os pagamentos não têm sido suficientes para cobrir os gastos. Esta questão está ligada ao fato de que, ainda que tenha começado o recebimento pela comercialização de alguns produtos desenvolvidos internamente, ainda não há produtos desenvolvidos resultantes de contratos com grandes companhias e, portanto, ainda não foram correspondidas as expectativas com relação ao recebimento de royalties. Há deficiência com relação ao controle administrativo dessas atividades por parte do Estado, o que reflete na falta de transparência das fontes disponíveis de informações. A análise dos recursos financeiros obtidos versus repasse de verbas para fins de conservação fica comprometida em razão de informações incompletas ou pela falta de padronização na apresentação dos dados no decorrer dos anos. O desmatamento tem apresentado queda contínua, mas não é possível relacionar este fato com os contratos de bioprospecção, devido ao sistema variado de fontes de contribuições e pagamentos por serviços destinados à conservação biológica naquele país. Ademais, os conhecimentos tradicionais das populações locais estão sendo ignoradas em todo esse processo conduzido pelo INBio. Portanto, até o momento, o que acontece na Costa Rica está mais próximo de representar uma evolução no sentido de empreender medidas em direção ao uso e conservação dos recursos biológicos, porém ainda não representa a solução ou ajuda significativa à conservação biológica naquele país. / Using the process known as bioprospecting, it is proposed the use of the profits obtained with the commercialization of products, such as pharmaceuticals, in biological conservation activities. The objective of this work is to verify the importance of this instrument for conservation, by means of a case study focused in the experience of the National Biodiversity Institute (Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidade) (INBio), in Costa Rica. The methodology is based in the strategies of researching: a) case study; b) documents and c) bibliography research. The National Biodiversity Institute (INBio), a non-profit association which has endeavored to elaborate a national biodiversity inventory and signed various bioprospecting contracts, among them the renowned agreement with Merck pharmaceutical company. Some positive points should be emphasized from this experience: generation of knowledge about local biological resources through inventory; creation of a control system for accessing and identifying the collected materials; the development of a legal apparatus; the improvement of negotiation skills; the dissemination of information through scientific publications, activities oriented to Environmental Education and supporting national small and medium firms in the development of products based on the country\'s biological resources. On the other hand, the data analyzed show low financial return, in spite of the fact that the income for the commercialization of some internally-developed products has begun. Payments have not been enough to cover the Institute\'s expenditures and there are still no developed products resulting from contracts with big companies and, therefore, the expectations relative to the receiving of royalties were still not fulfilled. There is a deficiency relative to the administrative control of these activities by the State, which reflects the lack of transparency of the available sources of information. The analysis of the obtained resources versus the transfer of funds for conservation is jeopardized due to incomplete information or lack of standardization in the presentation of data through the years. Deforestation has declined continuously, but it is impossible to relate this fact to the bioprospecting contracts, due to the diverse system of contribution and payment sources for services destined to the conservation of that country\'s natural resources. Besides, the traditional knowledge of the local population has been ignored in the entire process conducted by INBio. Therefore, for the moment, what happens in Costa Rica is closer to represent an evolution in the sense of taking steps in the direction of using and conserving biological resources, but it still does not represent the solution or significant aid to the biological conservation in Costa Rica.

L’agriculture se situe au carrefour des stratégies d’atténuation et d’adaptation, en particulier dans les régions tropicales. Les efforts d’atténuation pour limiter l’accumulation de gaz à effet de serre dans l’atmosphère et les mesures d’adaptation visant à au moins maintenir les rendements et les revenus agricoles face au changement climatique contribueront à éradiquer l’extrême pauvreté et la faim. Cette thèse explore l'adoption de technologies climato-intelligentes par les petits exploitants du Costa Rica dans les deux principaux systèmes agricoles du pays, à savoir les plantations de café et les systèmes extensifs d'élevage de bétail. Je présente les résultats de trois études qui utilisent des données originales pour étudier les possibilités et les défis liés à l’extension de l’agroforesterie et du sylvopastoralisme.Les obstacles potentiels à l’adoption de technologies par les ménages ruraux dans les pays en développement sont décrits dans l’introduction. Dans le premier chapitre, un modèle représentatif d'allocation des terres entre les technologies de production des exploitations de café est utilisé pour explorer le compromis entre l'adoption de l'agroforesterie - une option bien documentée pour l'atténuation et l'adaptation - et la gestion des risques de marché. Basé sur une expérience de choix menée avec 207 agriculteurs, le chapitre 2 évalue la volonté des producteurs de café d'adopter diverses stratégies basées sur l'agroforesterie, sous différents types d’incitation. Le chapitre 3 évalue l'efficacité d'un programme national de partage des coûts favorisant l'adoption de paquets technologiques compatibles avec l'intensification fondée sur le sylvopastoralisme chez les éleveurs de bovins. Il fournit des estimations de l'impact de la participation au programme sur l'adoption des technologies et sur l’utilisation des terres. Dans l'ensemble, les résultats de ces études suggèrent que l'adoption de l'agroforesterie et du sylvopastoralisme est coûteuse et peut être ralentie en raison des frictions du marché. L’intervention publique par le biais d'incitations économiques peut en réponse être efficace afin d’encourager les petits exploitants à adopter ces technologies. Le choix de la technologie à promouvoir se révèle crucial pour l’efficience de ces interventions, soulignant la pertinence des études proposées. / Smallholding agriculture lies at the crossroads of mitigation and adaptation strategies. Both mitigation efforts to limit the atmospheric accumulation of greehouse gases and adaptation measures that aim to at least maintain agricultural yields and incomes in the face of climate change will be instrumental in eradicating extreme poverty and hunger. This dissertation explores the adoption of climate-smart technologies by Costa Rican smallholders in the two main farming systems of the country, namely high-quality coffee plantations and extensive cattle-ranching farms. I present the resultsof three studies that use primary data to investigate opportunities and challenges for scaling-up agroforestry and silvopastoralism. Potential barriers that put strain on technology adoption by rural households in the developing world are outlined in the introduction. In the first Chapter, a representative coffee farm model of land allocation between production technologies is used to explore the tradeoff between adopting coffee agroforestry - a well-documented option for both mitigation and adaptation - and dealing with market risks. Based on a Choice Experiment conducted with 207 farmers, Chapter 2 assesses the willingness of coffee farmers to adopt various agroforestry-based strategies, under various types of support. Chapter 3 evaluates the effectiveness of a national cost-share program promoting the adoption of technological packages consistent with silvopastoralism-based intensification among cattle ranchers. It provides estimates of the impact of participating into the program on both the technology adoption and the land use patterns. Overall, the results of these studies suggest that the adoption of agroforestry and silvopastoralism is costly and can be slowed down due to market frictions. Public interventions can in turn be effective in encouraging smallholders to adopt these technologies through economic incentives. The choice of the technology to be promoted is found to be crucial for the cost-efficiency of such interventions, stressing the relevance of the research conducted.

Este estudo é uma aproximação ao processo de criação da obra solo de ator. Pretende chamar a atenção acerca do potencial que envolve esse percurso como caminho para a constituição do ator em um sujeito/criador, artista pleno, que participa da criação teatral posicionando-­-se com seu corpo/voz e sua Voz. Partindo de uma experiência, a investigação é um estudo comparativo de cinco casos, experiências de criação de obras solo desenvolvidas na Costa Rica. Vale-­-se de entrevistas em retrospectiva e documentos de processo. Em um primeiro momento proporciona um breve panorama do contexto teatral costarriquenho atual. Apresenta a experiência disparadora e identifica a presença de obras solo nos âmbitos pedagógico, espetacular e de festivais. Apresenta outras abordagens da obra solo e estabelece um diálogo com os principais aportes. No seguinte capítulo examina a experiência disparadora à luz de princípios do Pensamento Complexo e da Crítica do Processo Criador, mostrando as dinâmicas internas e identificando seus elementos constitutivos. Na sequência são expostos os procedimentos de criação identificados como os mais recorrentes e sua presença na experiência gatilho. Os quatro processos restantes são examinados em seguida, com foco nas motivações, procedimentos e ressonâncias. Expõem-­-se ainda as tendências que caracterizam a experiência de criação de um solo de ator. Por fim, uma reflexão sobre o processo solo como experiência do sujeito é proposta como indício de mudanças no teatro costarriquenho contemporâneo e como ponto de partida para repensar a formação do ator. / This study is an approach to the creation process of the solo work of the actor. Intended to raise awareness about the potential that surrounds this resource as a way for the constitution of the actor in a subject/creator, full artist, who participates in the theatrical creation positioning himself as his body/voice and his Voice. From an experience, research is a comparative study of five cases, experiences of creating solo works developed in Costa Rica. Draws on interviews with hindsight and process documents. At first provides a brief overview of the current Costarrican theatrical context. Presents the triggering experience and identifies the presence of solo works in teaching, festivals and spectacular areas. Presents other approaches to solo work and establishes a dialogue with key contributions. The next chapter examines the triggering experience in the light of principles of Complex Thinking and the Critique of the Creator Process, showing the internal dynamics and identifying its constituent elements. Following are exposed creation procedures identified as the most applicants and their presence in the trigger experience. The remaining four cases are then examined, focusing on motivations, procedures and resonances. Still expose trends that characterize the experience of creating a solo actor. Finally, a reflection on the solo process as an experience of subject is proposed as an indication of changes in contemporary Costarrican theater and as a starting point for rethinking the training of the actor.

Le système mondial des villes a subi une série de transformations à la suite del'intégration des différentes économies nationales dans la globalisation,de l'émergence d'une nouvelle division du travail, de la pénétration du capitaltransnational dans la dynamique locale et de l'importance croissante de services auxproducteurs et aux consommateurs. La mondialisation des villes, avec le phénomènede métropolisation, a changé l'utilisation des sols, l'aménagement des bâtiments etdes projets urbains d’expansion territoriale. Par conséquent elle consitue un nouveaudéfi pour les autorités locales et pour l’Etat en ce qui concerne la planification, lagestion et la gouvernance. L’aménagement moderne doit donc mettre l’accent à la foissur l’expansion territoriale et sur les modèles concurrents qui changent l’utilisationdes espaces urbains. Pour mieux comprendre les dynamiques des villes, notre étudedans le domaine de la géographie économique prend en compte différentes échelles:régionale, nationale et locale. La réflexion théorique est mise en pratique au seind’une analyse comparative entre deux métropoles de la région centraméricaine : laGran Área Metropolitana (GAM) à San José au Costa Rica et l’Área MetropolitanaPacífico (AMP) de Ciudad de Panamá. Nous analyserons ces deux cas à partir desannées 1990, car elles ont marqué de nouveaux défis économiques et politiques nonseulement dans chacune de ces aires métropolitaines mais aussi dans la régioncentroaméricaine. / On a global scale, the system of cities has been subjected to a series oftransformations from their economic integration, the emergence of a new division oflabor, the penetration of transnational capital and the growing importance of servicesfor the producers and the consumers. The globalization of cities, through thephenomenon of metropolization, has greatly changed the use of land, the layout ofbuildings and urban development projects for territorial expansion becoming a newchallenge for local and state authorities to plan, manage and govern. Therefore,modern spatial planning must consider the factor of globalization – that influences theterritorial expansion of cities – as well as the models of competitiveness that modifythe use of land. To get a better understanding of the international dynamics in cityspace, in the discipline of economic geography, our study takes into account differentscales: regional, national and local. Theoretical reflection is put into practice bymeans of a comparative analysis between two metropolises in the Central Americanregion: the Gran Área Metropolitana (GAM) in San José in Costa Rica and the ÁreaMetropolitana Pacífico (AMP) in Panamá City. We will analyze both cases from the1990s onwards because this decade corresponds to the new economic and politicalchallenges that were established in each metropolitan area and in the CentralAmerican region in general.

No description available.

Le Costa Rica s’est construit comme une société homogène sans valorisation ni représentation des classes populaires. Dans les discours savants et dans le champ politique, la faible représentation des couches inférieures des classes populaires est généralement expliquée par leur atomisation. Incapables de se retrouver autour d’intérêts communs, ces groupes ne pourraient exister collectivement dans l’espace politique institué. À revers de ces analyses, cette thèse interroge l’émergence de porte-parole et leur accès à la politique instituée à travers l’étude de carrières de dirigeants de deux quartiers populaires à San José. En l’absence d’une structuration clientélaire ou corporative, ces dirigeants sont en général considérés comme des acteurs isolés ayant tout pouvoir sur une clientèle de voisins apathiques. Or, leur leadership repose sur des liens personnalisés et localisés et sur des logiques d’unification. Pour résoudre les problèmes locaux, les dirigeants s’attachent à mettre en forme des attentes autour desquelles leur voisinage peut se retrouver. Mais, leur action se déroulant hors de structures d’encadrement préétablies, leur position est précaire. Face aux échecs des projets qu’ils portent et à la position inconfortable que cela leur vaut localement, certains dirigeants tentent de poursuivre leur engagement en entrant en politique. Or, cela est rendue difficile par une gestion partisane des carrières militantes peu favorable à ces groupes sociaux. Ainsi, à travers une analyse par le bas des modes d’action de ces dirigeants, cette thèse contribue à l’analyse des formes d’engagement et de politisation populaires se déroulant à la marge de la politique instituée / In academic discourse as much as in the political field, the poor representation of the lower classes of Costa Rican society is generally attributed to the fact that they are dispersed. Unable to gather into communities of interest, these groups could not exist collectively in the political field. Taking an opposite position to these analyses, this thesis investigates the emergence of spokespersons and their access to the political field by studying the neighbourhood’s leaders’ careers. These leaders are generally considered to have all power over a clientele of apathetic neighbours. However, if their leadership relies on the strength of personalised and localised ties, made and kept by a range of exchanges of goods and services, this investigation sheds light on processes of unification. In order to resolve local problems, the leaders focus on rationalising, even perhaps inciting needs that their neighbours can rally behind. Faced with regular failure and the subsequent uncomfortable position this leaves them him, some leaders can attempt to pursue a career in the political establishment. However, their entry in politics is particularly difficult due to the political parties who manage political careers and are not in favour of urban working class groups. Through a bottom-up approach, this thesis contributes to the analysis of the forms of political engagement and the politicization of the lower classes, which can happen on the margins of the political field

Este estudo é uma aproximação ao processo de criação da obra solo de ator. Pretende chamar a atenção acerca do potencial que envolve esse percurso como caminho para a constituição do ator em um sujeito/criador, artista pleno, que participa da criação teatral posicionando-­-se com seu corpo/voz e sua Voz. Partindo de uma experiência, a investigação é um estudo comparativo de cinco casos, experiências de criação de obras solo desenvolvidas na Costa Rica. Vale-­-se de entrevistas em retrospectiva e documentos de processo. Em um primeiro momento proporciona um breve panorama do contexto teatral costarriquenho atual. Apresenta a experiência disparadora e identifica a presença de obras solo nos âmbitos pedagógico, espetacular e de festivais. Apresenta outras abordagens da obra solo e estabelece um diálogo com os principais aportes. No seguinte capítulo examina a experiência disparadora à luz de princípios do Pensamento Complexo e da Crítica do Processo Criador, mostrando as dinâmicas internas e identificando seus elementos constitutivos. Na sequência são expostos os procedimentos de criação identificados como os mais recorrentes e sua presença na experiência gatilho. Os quatro processos restantes são examinados em seguida, com foco nas motivações, procedimentos e ressonâncias. Expõem-­-se ainda as tendências que caracterizam a experiência de criação de um solo de ator. Por fim, uma reflexão sobre o processo solo como experiência do sujeito é proposta como indício de mudanças no teatro costarriquenho contemporâneo e como ponto de partida para repensar a formação do ator. / This study is an approach to the creation process of the solo work of the actor. Intended to raise awareness about the potential that surrounds this resource as a way for the constitution of the actor in a subject/creator, full artist, who participates in the theatrical creation positioning himself as his body/voice and his Voice. From an experience, research is a comparative study of five cases, experiences of creating solo works developed in Costa Rica. Draws on interviews with hindsight and process documents. At first provides a brief overview of the current Costarrican theatrical context. Presents the triggering experience and identifies the presence of solo works in teaching, festivals and spectacular areas. Presents other approaches to solo work and establishes a dialogue with key contributions. The next chapter examines the triggering experience in the light of principles of Complex Thinking and the Critique of the Creator Process, showing the internal dynamics and identifying its constituent elements. Following are exposed creation procedures identified as the most applicants and their presence in the trigger experience. The remaining four cases are then examined, focusing on motivations, procedures and resonances. Still expose trends that characterize the experience of creating a solo actor. Finally, a reflection on the solo process as an experience of subject is proposed as an indication of changes in contemporary Costarrican theater and as a starting point for rethinking the training of the actor.

Por meio do processo conhecido como bioprospecção, propõe-se a aplicação dos lucros obtidos com a comercialização de produtos, como fármacos, em ações para conservação biológica. O objetivo deste trabalho é verificar a importância deste instrumento para a conservação a partir de estudo de caso focado na experiência do Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidade (INBio), na Costa Rica. Os procedimentos metodológicos estão baseados nas estratégias de pesquisa de: a) estudo de caso; b) documental e c) pesquisa bibliográfica. O INBio, uma associação sem fins lucrativos, se empenhou na elaboração do inventário nacional da biodiversidade e firmou diversos contratos de bioprospecção, entre eles o comentado acordo com a indústria farmacêutica Merck. Alguns pontos positivos devem ser destacados a partir dessa experiência: geração de conhecimento sobre os recursos biológicos locais em função do inventário; criação de sistema de controle ao acesso e identificação dos materiais coletados; o aparato jurídico desenvolvido; aprimoramento da capacidade de negociação; disseminação de informação em publicações científicas; atividades voltadas à Educação Ambiental e apoio a pequenas e médias empresas nacionais no desenvolvimento de produtos baseados em recursos biológicos do país. Por outro lado, os dados analisados mostram que tem sido baixo o retorno financeiro do Instituto; os pagamentos não têm sido suficientes para cobrir os gastos. Esta questão está ligada ao fato de que, ainda que tenha começado o recebimento pela comercialização de alguns produtos desenvolvidos internamente, ainda não há produtos desenvolvidos resultantes de contratos com grandes companhias e, portanto, ainda não foram correspondidas as expectativas com relação ao recebimento de royalties. Há deficiência com relação ao controle administrativo dessas atividades por parte do Estado, o que reflete na falta de transparência das fontes disponíveis de informações. A análise dos recursos financeiros obtidos versus repasse de verbas para fins de conservação fica comprometida em razão de informações incompletas ou pela falta de padronização na apresentação dos dados no decorrer dos anos. O desmatamento tem apresentado queda contínua, mas não é possível relacionar este fato com os contratos de bioprospecção, devido ao sistema variado de fontes de contribuições e pagamentos por serviços destinados à conservação biológica naquele país. Ademais, os conhecimentos tradicionais das populações locais estão sendo ignoradas em todo esse processo conduzido pelo INBio. Portanto, até o momento, o que acontece na Costa Rica está mais próximo de representar uma evolução no sentido de empreender medidas em direção ao uso e conservação dos recursos biológicos, porém ainda não representa a solução ou ajuda significativa à conservação biológica naquele país. / Using the process known as bioprospecting, it is proposed the use of the profits obtained with the commercialization of products, such as pharmaceuticals, in biological conservation activities. The objective of this work is to verify the importance of this instrument for conservation, by means of a case study focused in the experience of the National Biodiversity Institute (Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidade) (INBio), in Costa Rica. The methodology is based in the strategies of researching: a) case study; b) documents and c) bibliography research. The National Biodiversity Institute (INBio), a non-profit association which has endeavored to elaborate a national biodiversity inventory and signed various bioprospecting contracts, among them the renowned agreement with Merck pharmaceutical company. Some positive points should be emphasized from this experience: generation of knowledge about local biological resources through inventory; creation of a control system for accessing and identifying the collected materials; the development of a legal apparatus; the improvement of negotiation skills; the dissemination of information through scientific publications, activities oriented to Environmental Education and supporting national small and medium firms in the development of products based on the country\'s biological resources. On the other hand, the data analyzed show low financial return, in spite of the fact that the income for the commercialization of some internally-developed products has begun. Payments have not been enough to cover the Institute\'s expenditures and there are still no developed products resulting from contracts with big companies and, therefore, the expectations relative to the receiving of royalties were still not fulfilled. There is a deficiency relative to the administrative control of these activities by the State, which reflects the lack of transparency of the available sources of information. The analysis of the obtained resources versus the transfer of funds for conservation is jeopardized due to incomplete information or lack of standardization in the presentation of data through the years. Deforestation has declined continuously, but it is impossible to relate this fact to the bioprospecting contracts, due to the diverse system of contribution and payment sources for services destined to the conservation of that country\'s natural resources. Besides, the traditional knowledge of the local population has been ignored in the entire process conducted by INBio. Therefore, for the moment, what happens in Costa Rica is closer to represent an evolution in the sense of taking steps in the direction of using and conserving biological resources, but it still does not represent the solution or significant aid to the biological conservation in Costa Rica.

Diese Forschung untersucht die lehrplanmäßige, pädagogische und didaktische Entwicklung der staatsbürgerlichen Bildung in Costa Rica im Zeitraum von 1886 bis 2015. Die Analyse wurde unter Berücksichtigung der nationalen Politik durchgeführt, indem unterschiedliche Situationen, Akteure, Tendenzen und politisch-pädagogischen Spannungen in Zusammenhang mit dem Lehrplan und der didaktischen Artikulation der politischen Bildung gesetzt wurden. Es wird angenommen, dass die Perspektive der bildungspolitischen Internationalisierung unterschiedliche Momente, Akteure und transnationale Prozesse bei der Artikulation der staatsbürgerlichen Bildung in Costa Rica einnimmt. Auf Grundlage der Kombination nationaler Politik und transnationalen politisch-pädagogischen Trends können drei Schlüsselmomente in der Entwicklung der Staatsbürgerschaftsbildung in Costa Rica identifiziert werden: Der erste Moment zeichnet sich zwischen 1886 und 1949 ab und ist gekennzeichnet durch die Dominanz republikanischer und liberaler politischer Gruppen in der nationalen Politik, die den staatsbürgerlichen Unterricht an zentraler Stelle im nationalen Lehrplan positionierten und mit französischen Ideen der Bürgerbildung unterfüttern. Auch der Einfluss des Instituto Pedagógico de Chile, in dem in der ersten Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts relevante Persönlichkeiten im Bereich des staatsbürgerlichen Unterrichts des Landes ausgebildet wurden, schlägt sich nieder. Der zweite Moment ab 1949 nach dem letzten Bürgerkrieg im Land und der Gründung der zweiten Republik war geprägt von der Dominanz der sozialdemokratischen Ideologie und der nationalen Befreiungspartei in der nationalen Politik. Die politische Bildung orientierte sich in dieser Zeit am demokratischen, antikommunistischen Diskurs und später an der Friedenserziehung aufgrund der Befriedung Mittelamerikas und des Friedensnobelpreises, der 1987 an den ehemaligen Präsidenten Oscar Arias verliehen wurde. Schließlich konzentrierte sich die Forschung auf die Haupttrends in Bezug auf politisch-pädagogische, pädagogische und lehrplanmäßige Transformationen, die in den ersten Jahren des 19. Jahrhunderts bis 2015 stattfanden. / This research studies the curricular, pedagogical, and didactic evolution of Citizenship Education in Costa Rica for the period from 1886 -2015. The analysis has been carried out taking into account national politics, that is, the different situations, actors, tendencies, and political-educational tensions around the curricular and didactic articulation of Civic Education. The perspective of educational political internationalization is also assumed to observe different moments, agents, and transnational processes in the articulation of Citizenship Education in Costa Rica. There are three key moments in the evolution of Costa Rican Citizenship Education, as a result of the combination of national politics and transnational political-educational trends. The process developed between 1886 and 1949, characterized by the dominance in national politics of republican and liberal political groups, who positioned Civic Instruction in a central place in the national curriculum and came into contact with French ideas of citizen education and also with the Pedagogical Institute of Chile, in which relevant figures in the field of Civic Instruction of the country were formed during the first half of the 20th century. The second moment from 1949, after the last Civil War in the country and the founding of the Second Republic, was characterized by the dominance of the social-democratic ideology in national politics and the National Liberation Party. Civic Education was oriented in this period by democratic, anti-communist discourse and later by education for peace due to the pacification of Central America and the Nobel Peace Prize awarded to former president Oscar Arias in 1987. Finally the research focused on the main trends in political-educational, pedagogical, and curricular transformations that occurred during the first years of the 19th century until 2015. / En esta investigación se estudia la evolución curricular, pedagógica y didáctica de la formación para la ciudadanía en Costa Rica durante el periodo 1886-2015. Se asume también la perspectiva de la internacionalización político educativa para observar distintos momentos, agentes y procesos transnacionales en la articulación de la educación para la ciudadanía en Costa Rica. Se distinguen tres momentos claves en la evolución de la educación para la ciudadanía, en los que la politicidad nacional y las tendencias político-educativas transnacionales dieron como resultante histórica distintas versiones de formación para la ciudadanía en Costa Rica. Un primer momento fue el comprendido entre 1886 y 1949, caracterizado por el dominio en la política nacional de las ideas y los grupos políticos republicanos y liberales, quienes posicionaron la Instrucción Cívica en un lugar central del currículo nacional.El segundo momento a partir de 1949, después de la última Guerra Civil del país y la fundación de la Segunda República, se caracterizó por el dominio en la política nacional de la socialdemocracia y del Partido Liberación Nacional. La Educación Cívica estuvo orientada en este período por el discurso democrático, anticomunista y más tarde por la educación para la paz debido a la pacificación de Centroamérica y el premio Nobel de la Paz otorgado al expresidente Oscar Arias en 1987. Un resultado de este proceso fue la implementación de la asignatura de Estudios Sociales procedente de Estados Unidos, asignatura que incluyó las materias de Historia, Geografía y Educación Cívica. Finalmente, se estudian las principales tendencias y transformaciones político-educativas, pedagógicas y curriculares que se produjeron durante los primeros años del siglo XIX hasta 2015.