Thesis (M. Soc. Sc.)--University of Hong Kong, 1985.

This study presented a critical investigation of the mainstream neo-liberal approach to global intellectual property rights protection. There is a widespread but incorrect perception in the contemporary intellectual property policy regime that ineffective copyright protection in developing countries is primarily an institutional problem deriving from the lack of economic capacity and jurisprudential systems. Arguing that the conventional policy regime offers only a limited account for global copyright protection, this study aimed to show that inadequate copyright protection is not only an institutional but also historically contingent cultural problem. For the purpose, the present study conducted two phases of investigation: (1) a cross- national data analysis of software piracy and (2) comparative historical analysis of authorship in England and China. The first study empirically examined the key determinants of software piracy in the contemporary international market. From multivariate statistical analyses of international data, the study attempted to identify significant factors facilitating software piracy. Special attention was paid to identifying the influence of national culture in software piracy when other institutional factors were controlled. The results showed that a combined outcome of multiple factors including national income, institutional capacity for property protection, in-group collectivist cultural practices, and attitudes toward international intellectual property protection explains the software piracy problem. The second study aimed to provide a more in-depth understanding of the historical linkage between copyright and culture. It traced the historical formation of authorship in English and Chinese print culture to examine whether and why there emerged contrasting conceptions of authorship between them. The findings showed that there was a distinctive historical divergence of material, ideological, and institutional contexts of print culture, which led to different authorship conceptions between England and China. This implies that authorship as the fundamental cultural basis of modern copyright law was not a natural and universal phenomenon inevitably arising from the printing press but rather historically and culturally contingent. / text

Meanings when consuming sport are socially constructed, culturally patterned, and cognitively organized. In order to identify common elements and explore national differences in the meanings of sport consumption, this study used the Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation Technique (ZMET) to interview fans of professional basketball in the United States and China. Sixteen fans of professional basketball from each country were interviewed. Six categories of themes emerged from the interview data. They were: fanship socialization, fanship in life, the NBA/CBA interpretation, sport definition, identity orientation, and experience orientation. A model of fanship meaning and structure was then developed to represent fanship across the two national cultures. The model reveals that sport fanship can be conceptualized as mental maps with largely universal and interconnected cognitive constructs substantiated with meanings woven into fabrics using threads derived from the fans’ social and cultural contexts. Because of this social and cultural embeddedness, there is substantial cross-cultural variation in the ways that sport is interpreted. In particular, the two national groups have developed different definitions of what it means to be a fan. Americans focus on the team’s symbolic representation of their home city whereas Chinese see their connection with basketball-as-a-sport to be central to their fanship. This is a result of variation in the ways that fans were socialized into sport, the social significance of sport, and the fact that most Chinese fans follow NBA teams. The differences in fanship definition consequently exert cascading effects on the ways fans identify with basketball and experience the game. Findings of this study piece together different research streams to render a holistic conceptualization of fanship across the social, cultural, and psychological spheres. Based on the findings, a research program for a Sport Consumption Culture Theory (SCCT) was conceptualized. It is proposed that an emphasis on symbolism enabled by sport for identity construction and the characteristics of sport as consumption objectives form the core of a SCCT research program, and distinguish it from the general consumer research. / text

In response to the nursing shortages, hospitals in the U.S. have been filling nursing positions by hiring foreign nurse graduates (FNGs). Filipino nurses represent the majority of all FNGs recruited to work in the U.S. Although Filipino nurses are not new to U.S. hospitals, very few studies have detailed how Filipino nurses have adjusted to U.S. nursing practice. The purpose of this study was to explore how Filipino nurses' perceived their role performance in the U.S. Using grounded theory as the methodology and symbolic interactionism as the philosophical underpinning, the principal investigator (PI) developed a substantive theory using a constant comparative method as the analytical approach. The PI used convenience and theoretical sampling to recruit 31 English-speaking female Filipino RNs practicing in Texas. One interview was conducted with each participant and the data were transcribed verbatim. The PI followed Strauss and Corbin's analytic steps to examine all cases, and the rigor of the theory was safeguarded by following the criteria of evaluation. All participants experienced challenges while adjusting to the U.S. healthcare system and American society due to differences in cultural expectations and experiences. The theory explains the processes of Filipino nurses' transition to U.S. nursing practice. The core variable was "transitioning from Filipino to U.S. nursing practice," which was shaped by nine relational categories. Based on descriptions from these Filipino nurses, it was clear that role transitioning from the Philippines to the U.S. is a complex phenomenon influenced by the meanings and expectations derived from these nurses' prior context in the Philippines. This theory should be beneficial to the many entities involved with or invested in Filipino nurses' migration by providing knowledge about their role transitioning. However, these findings cannot be applied to all Filipino nurses. Future research studies are needed to expand the scope of this theory and to empirically test it. Filipino nurses perceived that unethical actions were constantly taking place, regardless of existing rules and regulations. However, these nurses did little to correct or address the problems or ethical lapses themselves. Advocacy efforts are needed to ensure full understanding of immigration laws and policies to ensure fair work practices for Filipino nurses working in the U.S. / text

This dissertation examines (1) whether there are differences in how sympathy is expressed in situations of differing gravity by native speakers (NSs) of Spanish and English, as well as intermediate second language (L2) learners of Spanish; and (2) Spanish NSs' thoughts regarding learners' nonstandard reactions to these situations. The data collection involved an informal conversation eliciting sympathy and a retrospective interview. Sympathy is examined not only as an emotion but also as a means to achieve social or conversational goals. Hence, the analysis involves both linguistic and sociological theories. Using aspects of Speech Act Theory (Austin, 1962; Searle, 1969), Conversation Analysis (Schegloff & Jefferson, 1974) and Politeness Theory (Brown & Levinson, 1987), and following Clark's (1997) ideas on the process of giving sympathy, it was found that when reacting to an interlocutor's hardships, speakers may experience genuine overt sympathy, covert sympathy or surface sympathy, which are influenced by social and politeness factors, personality differences and conversational structure. Results also indicate that differences exist in how sympathy is expressed by NSs of English and Spanish, particularly for low gravity situations. For high gravity situations, speakers of both languages tended to rely more on the use of formulaic expressions. Also, learners were often unable to react due to linguistic limitations. Some learners transferred pragmatic knowledge from their L1 to their L2, while others had acquired sufficient L2 pragmatic information to react appropriately. Finally, it was seen that NSs are more lenient regarding pragmatic errors committed by non-NSs of the language, but many consider that failing to express compassion in certain contexts could negatively impact the communication or relationship between interlocutors. The findings suggest that learning to express emotion such as compassion is an important part of achieving L2 communicative competence and, since cultural and pragmatic differences exist among languages, learners should be exposed to real-life, communicative situations in order to acquire such emotive skills. This dissertation contributes to the fields of second language acquisition and pragmatics by combining cognitive, affective and social factors to show how they interact with language production and comprehension. / text

This study investigated how the speech act of refusal is realized in Egyptian Arabic by intermediate and advanced American learners of Arabic as a foreign language. It also compared the performance of the learners to that of native speakers of Egyptian Arabic and native speakers of American English. The study aimed to investigate the relationship between the learners' language proficiency and their pragmatic competence. In addition, it examined the extent of pragmatic transfer from L1 and whether there was a relationship between the degree of pragmatic transfer and the level of L2 proficiency. The study also examined how refusals are structured and organized at the discourse level. Four groups participated in the study: 10 native speakers of Egyptian Arabic, 10 native speakers of American English, 10 American learners of Arabic at the intermediate level, and 10 at the advanced level. Data were collected using enhanced open-ended role plays which consisted of 6 scenarios eliciting refusals of offers and requests in equal and unequal status situations. Both quantitative and qualitative data analytic methods were used for analyzing the interactions. Results show that there were important differences between the two learner groups and the native speakers of Egyptian Arabic with regard to the frequency of direct and indirect strategies and individual strategy use. For example, the learners used a higher percentage of direct strategies and a lower percentage of indirect strategies than the native speakers of Egyptian Arabic, especially in higher status situations. The learners also used a higher percentage of the Statement of Regret and Request for Information/Clarification strategies and a lower percentage of the Postponement and Hedging strategies than the Egyptians. With regard to differences between the two learner groups, the advanced students were able to engage in more negotiation and use an overall lower percentage of direct strategies and a higher percentage of indirect strategies than their intermediate counterparts. Evidence of positive and negative pragmatic transfer was observed in the two learner groups; however a higher degree of transfer was observed in the advanced students. Individual differences among the learners were found to play a major role in how refusals were realized.

Fundamental to the debate of culture and its impact is the identification of the dimensions that comprise it. The impact of culture as an explanatory variable can be found in various social, scientific, and economic arenas, such as social perception, economic development, and the organization of industries and companies. By identifying and measuring these dimensions, researchers can then organize cultures empirically and develop complex descriptions of various cultures. The study aimed to test the structure of the dimensions proposed by Ho and Chiu (1994) by means of scale development. Test-item writers involved psychology graduate students of various nationalities with the purpose of addressing reliability issues of previous measures by virtue of increased content breadth. The study also aimed to investigate the notion that cultural tendencies vary by dimension across geographical regions. Phase-I factor analysis results indicated that a 5-factor solution (responsibility, affiliation, social welfare, religion, and achievement) should be retained. Phase-II involved administering the scale to an international and American student sample that formed the basis for group comparisons. The results for the group comparisons were illuminating, providing evidence for the conceptualization of individualism and collectivism as worldviews and that the groups varied in their worldview depending on the pertinent dimension being measured. Implications for organizational research are discussed within the framework of linking individualism and collectivism to workplace variables. This study hopes to spur further empirical research in the area to catch up with the progressing theoretical development through expanded cultural dimensions, theory refinement, determining the process(es) by which cultural factors are linked to work behaviors, and uncover the various areas of applicability and research.

Due to the recent phenomenon of globalization, the mobility of people has increased significantly. In a world where national and cultural borders are getting more blurred and undefinable, people from different parts of the world encounter individuals with different cultural backgrounds. Due to these different worldviews, perceptions and experiences, misunderstandings may arise when people engage in cross-cultural communication. This is true for recreational as well as professional cross-cultural communication. An individual who successfully interacts and communicates with people from other cultures possesses what has come to be known as cultural intelligence. In order to get a deeper understanding for how people perceive cross-cultural communication in the professional field, this study investigates how managers in the forestry based industry in Västerbotten have experienced communication with their international business partners. The investigation was conducted through personal interviews and a self-completion questionnaire was also distributed to make an attempt to measure the respondents’ cultural intelligence. The results point in the direction that cross-cultural communication is vital for organizations that operate on the global market. Both verbal communication and non-verbal communication do affect the collaboration, but there is no general answer to how. Every situation has to be dealt with in a unique way. This implies that the process of cultural learning and understanding is ongoing and dynamic.

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Many features of the making of major managerial decisions have been covered by research - complexity, politicality, innovations, and so forth. Yet one - to which all others may be subject - remains almost untouched by research. It is the effects of societal culture on the way managers from different nations make, and implement, such decisions. This study compares the effects of a New World Latin dominated culture with those of an Old World Anglo-Saxon dominated culture, namely in Brazil and England respectively. It arises from the proposition that decision making, as well as other managerial practices, must be shaped by the cultures of the societies of which senior executives are part, in ways of which they themselves may be unaware. Methodologically, in response to the criticisms of earlier research which often attributed managerial and organizational differences to culture without direct evidence for that, this study began by composing portrayals of both cultures. The purpose of the portraits was to enable predictions of culturally affected elements in decision making, prior to empirical investigation. Data was collected by interview on twenty Brazilian and twenty English decisions in sixteen Brazilian and seventeen English organizations, ranging through a variety of manufacturing and service industries as well as universities. The examination of the results confirmed most of the predicted cultural characteristics. Differences although small on each variable were remarkably consistent across all variables. Brazilian strategic decision making was found to be dominated by a clique around the chief executive, who make fast decisions in a process strongly based on the social relationships between the participants. This style of decision making leads, in Brazil, to very informal processes, with little or no delays and, relatively speaking, less search for information. English decisions were found to be more consultative with more interests being involved in different stages of the process. Decisions in this country were characterized by caution and conservatism with some tendency to postpone decisions. Methodologically, the value of the prior conceptualization and description of societal culture is demonstrated since this gives meaning to the extensive differences found in all aspects of decision making. Theoretically, an attempt is made to elucidate the interconnectedness of societal culture and managerial behaviour.