Ce travail est basé sur l’étude expérimentale, étape par étape, du procédé de lyophilisation, afin de comprendre les impacts des différents paramètres du procédé sur la viabilité d’une souche modèle probiotique de type lactobacillus casei. Nous avons tout d’abord étudié les propriétés thermodynamiques des formulations considérées à base de lactose et de polyvinylpyrrolidone, (PVP) en commençant dans un premier temps par l’obtention du diagramme d’état du système amorphe constitué du binaire eau-PVP, puis le diagramme de fusion du ternaire eau-PVP-lactose afin d’en déduire les paramètres clefs pour l’optimisation des cycles de lyophilisation de ces suspensions bactériennes. Dans la deuxième partie, nous avons caractérisé par microscopie électronique à balayage (MEB) la localisation des bactéries au sein de la phase solide amorphe des lyophilisats poreux. Ensuite, les différentes formulations ont été soumises à différents protocoles de congélation (vitesse de refroidissement ; recuit) afin d’obtenir les meilleurs résultats en termes de taux de survie des bactéries. Avec la formulation sélectionnée précédemment nous nous sommes intéressés à l’influence des paramètres opératoires de sublimation (température étagère et pression totale de sublimation) conduisant aux meilleurs taux de survie des bactéries. Nous avons observé que nos cellules probiotiques, avec ces formulations, pouvaient être lyophilisées, au-dessus de la température limite de collapse, sans impacter la viabilité des cellules présentes ou insérées au sein de la phase matrice poreuse du lyophilisat final, ce dernier présentant de plus, de bonnes propriétés d’usage en termes de stabilité en vue d’une mise en forme galénique ou d’un stockage ultérieur / This work is based on the experimental study, step by step, of the freeze-drying process of a model probiotic strain of lactobacillus caseï type to understand the impact of the numerous factors (formulation; freezing protocol; operating conditions) on the survival rates of these bacteria in the final lyophilisate. Firstly, we investigated the thermo-dynamical and physical properties (vitreous transition and melting temperatures) of formulations based on lactose and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) protectants and their mixture. Thus, we have determined the phase diagrams and the melting diagram of the water+PVP binary system and of the ternary water-PVP-lactose system. Next, we determined the optimal freezing protocol (freezing rates; annealing treatment) with different formulations which led to the best survival rates. Next, in a preliminary study we have characterized by SEM (scanning electron microscopy) the location of the cells inserted inside the solid amorphous phase of the porous matrix of the different lyophilisates. Secondly, with the pre-selected formulation, we experienced the influence of the main operating sublimation parameters (shelf temperature and total gas pressure), leading to highest product quality in terms of bacteria survival ratios of the final lyophilisates. We observed that these probiotics cells, with this formulation, could be freeze-dried above the limit collapse temperature without impacting significantly the viability of the freeze-dried cells and with lyophilisates of high stability attributes

Nos travaux sont consacrés à la fabrication, à la mise en œuvre et aux caractérisations de mélanges de polymères thermoplastiques thermostables destinés à des applications aéronautiques hautes températures. Le Poly(éther cétone cétone) PEKK, polymère semi-cristallin, a été choisi pour sa température de transition vitreuse (Tg) et son point de fusion (Tf) élevés. Les polyimides amorphes utilisés pour leur Tg élevée, sont le Poly(éther imide) PEI et le (polyimide) PI. Le but de ces mélanges est d’augmenter la Tg du PEKK, sans augmenter sa température de fusion. Ces travaux ont abouti à la caractérisation thermique, mécanique et rhéologique de chacun des polymères purs ainsi qu’à la définition d’un protocole de fabrication des mélanges. Les propriétés des mélanges ont alors été caractérisées par analyses thermomécaniques, par balayage calorimétrique différentiel et par des essais de traction afin de faire ressortir les meilleurs candidats pour les applications visées. Les modèles empiriques classiques de variation de la Tg prennent en compte seulement la composition des mélanges. Dans ce travail, nous proposons de corriger ceux-ci par la prise en compte de la variation du taux de cristallinité qui influe sur la composition de la phase amorphe et ainsi permettre une prévision plus fine de ce paramètre. La tenue au vieillissement à court terme des différents polymères dans un fluide aéronautique a aussi été abordée, et a montré que le PEKK a un effet protecteur sur les mélanges. / This PhD work presents the fabrication, processing and characterizations of thermoplastic thermostable polymer blends. It aims at finding new materials useable at high temperatures for aeronautical applications. Poly(ether ketone ketone), PEKK, a semi-crystalline polymer, has been chosen for its high glass transition temperature (Tg) and high melting point (Tf). Amorphous polyimides, that have been used for their high Tg, are Poly(ether imide), PEI, and Polyimide, PI. The aim of these blends is to increase the Tg of the PEKK without increasing its Tf. We have measured the thermal, mechanical and rheological properties of each neat polymer and the processing conditions of the blends have been defined. The properties of the blends have been characterized by thermomechanical analyses, differential scanning calorimetry and tensile tests to focus on the better candidates for the aimed applications. The classical empirical models of the Tg composition dependence take only into account the blends composition. We propose to correct them taking into account the crystallinity level, that affects the blends composition and predict a better prediction of the Tg . The short term ageing of these polymer blends specimens in a commonly used aeronautic fluid has also been studied, and showed the protection effect of the PEKK polymer in the blends.

La cristallisation de la cire dans les huiles pétrolières est un processus qui se produit à la suite de changements dans les conditions de pression et de température dans lesquelles ils sont sur le gisement, et qui diminuent progressivement le long de ses processus de production, transport et de stockage. Sa précipitation et son dépôt sur les surfaces intérieures des pipelines nécessitent la mise en œuvre des techniques de guérison ou d'amélioration des propriétés des fluides, afin de réduire les pertes causées par leur accumulation, qui dans certains cas pourrait complètement paralyser le production d'une plante. L'étude du processus de précipitation des paraffines est basée sur la détermination des conditions de pression et de température dans lesquelles il se produit, et la caractérisation des phases coexistent en équilibre. Parmi les principales limites de ce processus, nous trouvons de la disponibilité et de la conception des appareils expérimentaux qui permettent la détection des températures de fusion finissantes et la séparation de phases sous pression, et le développement des méthodes chromatographiques pour l'identification et la quantification des paraffines lourdes. Le développement de modèles thermodynamiques qui décrivent le processus de précipitation des paraffines sont l'un des principaux outils pour l'anticipation et la prévention des processus de cristallisation des cires. Son efficacité dans l'estimation des conditions dans lesquelles les cristaux commencent à apparaître, ainsi que la quantité totale de solides qui pourrait être formée, dépendent de la conception des techniques expérimentales qui reproduisent les conditions réelles d'opération, et de recueillir des informations fiables du comportement de phase dans des mélanges des hydrocarbures. Dans ce travail de recherche s'est développé une méthodologie complète pour la détection et filtration des cristaux dans une gamme s'étendant à partir des conditions normales jusqu'à 800 bars et une méthode chromatographique d’haute température qui ont permis d'effectuer une évaluation du comportement de phase en fonction de la composition, la pression et la température, ainsi que l'identification et la quantification des paraffines. Le comportement de phase des mélanges de paraffines étudiés indiquent que les variations de pression et de température ont une grande influence sur la cristallisation des cires: les processus de compression isotherme refroidissement isobare diminuent la solubilité des cires et entraîner non seulement dans une augmentation de la quantité de solides précipités, mais dans une variante de sa nature. De plus, l'augmentation de la pression du système provoque une augmentation linéaire des températures de changement de phase des mélanges étudiés. Pour sa part, les différences de composition des mélanges étudiés ont généré des différences significatives dans leur température de changement de phase, mais pas dans la quantité de matières solides cristallisées. En général, des mélanges enrichis en paraffines lourdes ont produit une augmentation de leur WAT. Les résultats obtenus ont montré que l'effet prédominant sur le processus de cristallisation des cires correspond à la diminution de la température du système, ce qui conduit à la formation de quantités importantes de déchets solides. De plus, elles sont consistant avec le comportement de phase des mélanges de cires synthétiques, ce qui permet de conclure que la méthode expérimentale développé, constitué par le couplage de la technique de détection et de séparation de phase avec chromatographie en phase gazeuse à haute température, représente outil précis et fiable pour l'étude des processus de précipitation de la paraffine dans des conditions réelles d'opération, et qui a surmonté les limites expérimentales typiques de ces analyses. / The wax crystallization in oil fluids is a process that occurs as a result of changes in pressure and temperature conditions found in the site, and gradually decreasing along the production process, transport and storage thereof. Precipitation and deposition on the inner surfaces of pipelines require the implementation of healing techniques or to improve the properties of fluids, in order to reduce losses caused by their accumulation, which in some cases could come to a complete standstill production plant. The study of paraffin precipitation process is based on determining the pressure and temperature conditions in which it occurs, and the characterization of the phases coexist in equilibrium. The main constraints of this process, we found the availability and experimental design devices that allow detection of the onset temperatures of crystals and phase separation at high pressure and the development of chromatographic methods for the identification and quantification of paraffins high molecular weight. The development of thermodynamic models describing the precipitation of paraffins is one of the main tools for anticipating and preventing wax crystallization process. Its effectiveness in estimating the conditions that will start appearing crystals and the total amount of solid that could be formed, depends on the design of experimental techniques to reproduce the real operating conditions, and gather reliable information of phase behavior in mixtures hydrocarbon. In the present investigation a complete methodology for detecting and filtering crystals in a range extending to 800 bar normal conditions and a high temperature chromatographic method that allowed to carry out the assessment phase behavior developed in Depending on the composition, pressure and temperature as well as the identification and quantification of heavy paraffins. Phase behavior of mixtures of paraffins studied indicates that changes in pressure and temperature have a great influence on the crystallization of waxes: isothermal compression processes isobaric cooling and decrease the solubility of the wax and result not only in an increase in the amount of precipitated solids but in a variation of the nature thereof. Additionally, increasing the system pressure generated an increase in temperature of the phase change mixtures studied. For its part, the differences in composition of the mixtures studied generated significant differences in their phase change temperature but not in the amount of solid crystallized. In general, enriching the mixture to heavy paraffins produced an increase in their respective WAT. The results obtained showed that the predominant effect in the wax crystallization process corresponds to the temperature decrease of systems, leading to the formation of large quantities of solid waste. Also, these are consistent with the phase behavior of mixtures of synthetic waxes, which allows to conclude that the experimental methodology developed, consisting of the coupling and detection techniques phase separation gas chromatography with high temperature, represents accurate and reliable tool for the study of paraffin precipitation process in real operating conditions, and who overcame the typical experimental limitations of these analyzes.

Citrus and other fruits produce secondary metabolites that are synthesized, regulated, and modified in part by a class of enzymes called glycosyltransferases. This class of enzymes is of substantial interest to this lab due to their unique structural and functional properties. Glycosides of flavonoids produced by glycosyltransferases have emerged in recent years as a critical part of plant metabolism, thus impacting every aspect of their growth, cultivation, production, and utilization. One such glycosyltransferase, found in Duncan Grapefruits (Citrus paradisi), was previously identified, recombinantly expressed, and shown through biochemical characterization to exclusively glycosylate the flavonol class of flavonoids. The structural basis that accounts for a glycosyltransferase's selectivity has been determined by protein crystallization in other labs, yet no structural basis currently exists for the specificity exhibited by this flavonol-specific glycosyltransferase. Currently, the WT enzyme and two mutants were expressed in E. coli, where they underwent site-directed mutagenesis to insert thrombin cleavage tags for removal of protein purification vectors, with the goal of transforming into yeast for adequate protein production. Subsequent purification and crystallization screens will allow for formation and acquisition of glycosyltransferase crystals, whose x-ray diffraction patterns will be decoded, thus revealing the enzyme's complete structure. We hypothesize that obtaining a crystal structure for this enzyme will illuminate the structural basis of its specificity. Additionally, we hypothesize that a thrombin- cleavage gene vector inserted for removal of purification tags will have no impact on enzyme activity or specificity.

The Bayer process for the production of alumina (A1203) from bauxite involves a perennial gibbsite (y-Al(OH)3) precipitation step, relating to an inherently slow crystal growth from supersaturated sodium aluminate solutions (pregnant Bayer liquors). The kinetics and mechanisms involved in the transformation of the tetrahydroxo, Al(III)-containing species in solution into octahedrally-coordinated Al(OH)3 crystals in the presence of NA+ and excess of ions, are as yet not fully known. To gain further knowledge and better understanding of the nature of solution species, their specific interaction and participation in the gibbsite crystallization mechanisms, the role alkali ions play in the kinetic behaviour and mechanisms of nucleation, growth and aggregation/agglomeration from caustic aluminate solutions of industrial strength has been investigated.

<p>In this thesis we report on the metal-mediated-thermally induced changes of the structural and optical properties of hydrogenated amorphous silicon deposited by hot-wire CVD, where aluminium and nickel were used to induce crystallization. The metal-coated amorphous silicon was subjected to a thermal annealing regime of between 150 and 520&deg / C. The structural measurements, obtained by Raman spectroscopy, show partial crystallization occurring at 350 &deg / C. At the higher annealing temperatures of 450&deg / C and 520&deg / C complete crystallization occurs. Reflection and transmission measurements in the UV-visible range were then used to extract the optical properties. By adopting the effective medium approximation a single optical model could be constructed that could successfully model material that was in different structural phases, irrespective of metal contamination. Changes in the absorption of the material in various stages of transition were confirmed with a directly measured absorption technique, and the modelled absorption closely followed the same trends This study forms part of the larger overall solar cell research project, of which the primary aim is to eventually develop a silicon solar panel that optimises the characteristics for best performance.</p>

Semi-batch crystallization experiments have been performedboth in a loop reactor and in stirred tank reactors.Hydrochloric acid was fed to a stirred solution of sodiumbenzoate, and benzoic acid immediately formed. Benzoic acid isformed in excess of the solubility making the solutionsupersaturated. The loop reactor is U-shaped. In one leg a propeller stirrerwas placed to circulate the solution and in the other a turbinestirrer was placed in front of the feed point to vary the localmixing intensity. The objective was to analyse the relativeimportance of different levels of mixing on the product sizedistribution. The importance of mixing as well as scaling-upeffects on the product size distribution were studied in threestirred tank reactors of volumes 2.5 L, 10 L, and 200 L. Thestirred tank reactors had different geometry and were equippedwith either a marine propeller or a pitched blade turbine. The weight mean size generally increases with increasingtotal feeding time and increasing mixing intensity. The weightmean size increases by locating an extra turbine impeller atthe feed point in the 10 L stirred tank reactor. The turbineimpeller provides the desired feed point mixing intensitywithout raising the mixing intensity of the whole tank. The weight mean size increases with decreasing feed pipediameter in the loop reactor and for low feed rates in the 10 Lstirred tank reactor. The weight mean size increasessignificantly by changing the feed pipe opening from circularto rectangular with a constant cross-sectional area at equalfeed rates. Backmixing is visually observed in the largest feedpipe diameter in the loop reactor, thus, reducing the weightmean size. However, backmixing is not considered to be adominant phenomenon in the present work. Mesomixing time constants have been calculated according tothe turbulent dispersion mechanism and the inertial-convectivemechanism. The time constants for mesomixing are generallylonger than the time constant for micromixing. Thus, the ratioof the mesomixing and the micromixing time constants shows aninfluence of mesomixing as is shown by the experimentalresults. The experimental results are best described by theinertial-convective disintegration mechanism showing that thefeed plume mixing increases with decreasing feed pipe diameterand increased feed point mixing. The weight mean size is not strongly affected by the reactorvolume. However, the mixing conditions in the reactors have astrong influence on the weight mean size. No suggestedscaling-up rule can satisfactorily predict the weight mean sizein the different volumes. No single physical parameter, such asthe local energy dissipation rate, the mean energy dissipationrate or the circulation time, can satisfactorily explain theexperimental results. A new dimensionless mixing parameter, TR,has been defined as the ratio of the total feeding time and themesomixing time constant. The mesomixing time constant isdefined as the shortest dimension of the feed pipe divided bythe resultant bulk velocity passing the feed pipe entrance. Theexperimental results from both the loop reactor and the stirredtank reactors of different volumes can be correlated with TR.The weight mean size increases with increasing TR. <b>Keywords</b>: reaction crystallization, precipitation,benzoic acid, macromixing, mesomixing, micromixing,semi-batch, loop reactor, backmixing, colour experiments,scaling-up. <b>Keywords</b>: reaction crystallization, precipitation,benzoic acid, macromixing, mesomixing, micromixing,semi-batch, loop reactor, backmixing, colour experiments,scaling-up.

Crystal structure, morphology and crystallization kinetics of melt-crystallized polypropylene and poly(propylene-stat-ethylene) fractions with 2.7 to 11.0 mol% of ethylene were studied by differential scanning calorimeter, wide- and small-angle X-ray scattering, polarized light microscopy, transmission electron microscopy and infrared spectroscopy. With increasing ethylene content the poly(propylene-stat-ethylene) fractions showed unchanged crystallinity, increased unit cell volume and constant crystal thickness in combination with a shortened helix length. This indicated that a fraction of ethylene defects were incorporated into the crystal structure. During the isothermal crystallization both α- and γ-crystals could be formed. The γ-crystal fraction increased with increasing ethylene content and increasing crystallization temperature. For samples with α- and γ-crystal contents, multimodal melting was observed and a noticeable γ- to α-crystal conversion was observed on slow heating. The spherulitic structure of the copolymers was coarser than that for the homopolymer. The crystalline lamellae in copolymers exhibited profound curvature in contrast to the straighter cross-hatched α-crystals typical to the homopolymer. Area dependence of electrical breakdown strength was studied for thin polypropylene homopolymer films. The measurements were performed with an automatic measurement system equipped with a scanning electrode arm. Five different electrodes having areas between 0.045 cm2 and 9.3 cm2 were used and typically 40-80 breakdowns per sample and electrode area were collected. All measurements were performed on dry samples in air at room temperature. The data was analyzed statistically and the Weibull function parameters α and β, the first one related to 63% probability for the sample to break down and the second one to the width of the distribution were fitted to the obtained data. Different features concerning the measurement system and conditions, e.g. criteria for the automatic detection of the breakdowns, effect of electrode edge design, partial discharges, DC ramp speed and humidity were critically analyzed. It was concluded that the obtained α-parameter values were stable and repeatable over several years of time. The β-parameter values, however, varied ± 10-30%, more for the large than the small electrodes, and were also sensitive to the changes both in the sample itself and in the measurement conditions. Breakdown strengths of over 50 capacitor grade polypropylene films were analyzed. The obtained α-parameter values were between 450 and 850 V/μm, depending on the film grade and electrode area. In addition to the high breakdown strengths, reflected by the obtained α-values, another, sparse distribution consisting of low breakdown strengths was revealed when the amount of measurement points was high enough. This means that more than one Weibull distribution could be needed to describe the breakdown strength behavior of a polypropylene film. Breakdown values showed decreasing area dependence with decreasing electrode area. Breakdown strengths for larger sample areas were predicted from the small area data by area- and Weibull extrapolation. The area extrapolation led to predicted α-values 50% higher than measured at 4 m2 whereas the Weibull extrapolation showed an accuracy of ±15 % when predicted and measured values were compared. Breakdown strengths were also extrapolated for film areas similar to those in impregnated power capacitors. It turned out that the power capacitors, tested at the factory, performed much better than predicted by the extrapolation. However, a few weak spots with very low breakdown values were also found. For the poly(ethyelene terephtalate) dielectric, which is not swelled by the impregnation liquid, the large area breakdown strength was predictable. This indicates that for polypropylene film processing and impregnation led, in addition to the improved large area breakdown performance, also to sparse weak spots with low breakdown probabilities. Different Weibull distributions were responsible for the breakdown strengths for the processed and impregnated polypropylene than for the dry film samples. / QC 20101027

In this thesis study, fabrication and doping of silicon thin films prepared by electron beam evaporation equipped with effusion cells for solar cell applications have been investigated. Thin film amorphous Si (a-Si) layers have been fabricated by the electron beam evaporator and simultaneously doped with boron (B) and phosphorous (P) using effusion cells. Samples were prepared on glass substrates for the future solar cell operations. Following the deposition of a-Si thin film, crystallization of the films has been carried out. Solid Phase Crystallization (SPC) and Metal Induced Crystallization (MIC) have been employed to obtain thin film crystalline Si. Crystallization was performed in a conventional tube furnaces and Rapid Thermal annealing systems (RTA) as a function of process parameters such as annealing temperature and duration. Produced films have been characterized using chemical and structural characterization techniques such as Raman Spectroscopy, X-Ray Diffractometer and Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometer (SIMS). The electrical properties of the films have been studied using Hall Effect and I-V measurements as a function of doping. We have demonstrated successful crystallization of a-Si by SPC at temperatures above 600 &deg / C. The crystallization occurred at lower temperatures in the case of MIC. For doping, P was evaporated from the effusion cell at a temperature between 600 &deg / C and 800 &deg / C. For B, the evaporation temperature was 1700 &deg / C and 1900 &deg / C. The thickness and the band gap of the Si films were determined by ellipsometry method and the results were compared for different evaporation temperatures. The effect of doping was monitored by the I-V and Hall Effect measurements. We have seen that the doping was accomplished in most of the cases. For the samples annealed at relatively high temperatures, the measured doping type was inconsistent with the expected results. This was attributed to the contamination from the glass substrate. To understand the origin of this contamination, we analyzed the chemical structure of the film and glass by X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) and seen that the glass is the main source of contamination. In order to prevent this contamination we have suggested covering the glass substrate with Si3N4 (Silicon Nitride) which act as a good diffusion barrier for impurities.

<p>Hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) is second only to crystalline silicon in volume manufacturing of solar cells due to its attractive characteristics for solar panel manufacturing. These are lower manufacturing costs, and the fact that it can be deposited on any surface, and in any shape even on flexible substrates. The metal induced crystallization of hydrogenated amorphous silicon has been the subject of intense scrutiny in recent years. By combining the technology of hydrogenated amorphous silicon thin films with the superior characteristics of c-Si material, it is hoped that more efficient solar cells can be produced. In this thesis we report on the metal-mediated-thermally induced changes of the structural and optical properties of hydrogenated amorphous silicon deposited by hot-wire CVD, where aluminium and nickel were used to induce crystallization. The metal-coated amorphous silicon was subjected to a thermal annealing regime of between 150 and 520&deg / C. The structural measurements, obtained by Raman spectroscopy, show partial crystallization occurring at 350 &deg / C. At the higher annealing temperatures of 450&deg / C and 520&deg / C complete crystallization occurs. Reflection and transmission measurements in the UV-visible range were then used to extract the optical properties. By adopting the effective medium approximation a single optical model could be constructed that couldsuccessfully model material that was in different structural phases, irrespective of metal contamination. Changes in the absorption of the material in various stages of transition were confirmed with a directly measured absorption technique, and the modelled absorption closely followed the same trends This study forms part of the larger overall solar cell research project, of which the primary aim is to eventually develop a silicon solar panel that optimises the characteristics for best performance.</p>