The biological membrane is composed of lipids and proteins that make up dynamic barriers around cells and organelles. Membrane-spanning proteins are involved in many key processes in the cell such as energy conversion, nerve conduction and signal transduction. These proteins interact closely with lipids as well as with other proteins in the membrane, which modulates and affects their structure and function. In the energy-conversion process, membrane-bound proton-transport proteins maintain an electrochemical proton gradient across the mitochondrial inner membrane or the cytoplasmic membrane of bacteria. This gradient is utilized for ATP synthesis or transport of ions and molecules across the membrane. Results from earlier studies have shown that proton transporters are influenced by their environment. Here, one of these proton transporters, cytochrome c oxidase, has been purified and reconstituted into liposomes or nanodiscs and membrane effects on specific proton-transfer processes were studied. In these studies we observed that the membrane accelerated proton transfer to the surface of cytochrome c oxidase and that there is a protonic link, via a Glu residue that mediates proton transfer from the membrane surface to a proton-transfer pathway in this protein. In addition, the membrane was shown to modulate specific internal electron and proton-transfer reactions. The results from these studies show that the membrane composition influences transmembrane transport. Consequently, our understanding of these processes requires investigation of these transporter proteins in different membrane-mimetic systems of variable and well-defined composition. Furthermore, the data show that membrane surfaces facilitate lateral proton transfer which is presumably essential for maintaining high efficiency in energy conversion. This is particular important in organisms such as alkaliphilic bacteria where the driving force of the electrochemical proton gradient, between the bulk solution on each side of the membrane is not sufficient for ATP synthesis.

Diese Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit dem mitochondrialen Sco1-Protein der Hefe Saccharomyces cerevisiae sowie mit weiteren Vertretern der Sco-Proteinfamilie. Sco1p ist essenziell für die Assemblierung der Cytochrom c Oxidase (COX), dem terminalen Komplex der Atmungskette. Aufgrund von genetischen Daten wurde angenommen, dass es an der Insertion von Cu-Ionen in den COX-Komplex beteiligt ist. Dabei existieren zwei unterschiedliche Vorstellungen über seine Wirkweise: Einerseits könnte Sco1p als Cu-Chaperon selbst Cu-Ionen binden und anschließend auf die Cu-tragenden COX-Untereinheiten Cox1p und/oder Cox2p übertragen. Andererseits könnte es als Disulfidreduktase die in die Cu-Bindung involvierten Cysteinreste von Cox2p reduzieren und somit die Voraussetzung für eine Cu-Anheftung an Cox2p schaffen. In beiden Fällen wird den unter den Sco-Proteinen konservierten Aminosäuren Cystein(148), Cystein(152) und Histidin(239) eine Schlüsselrolle zugedacht. Es wurde gezeigt, dass diese Aminosäuren tatsächlich essenziell für die Funktion von Sco1p sind. Die Daten dieser Arbeit sprechen dafür, dass Sco1p als Cu-Chaperon fungiert: Sco1p zeigt keine Aktivität als Disulfidreduktase. Außerdem interagiert Sco1p mit Cox17p - dem Protein, das Cu-Ionen in die Mitochondrien importiert - und geht mit Cox2p eine Wechselwirkung ein. Im Rahmen der Interaktionsanalysen wurde weiterhin gezeigt, dass Sco1p homomere Komplexe ausbildet. Ein weiterer Schwerpunkt dieser Arbeit lag in Untersuchungen zum homologen Sco2p aus Saccharomyces cerevisiae, das im Gegensatz zu Sco1p nicht essenziell für eine funkionsfähige COX ist. Trotz seiner großen Ähnlichkeit ist Sco2p nicht in der Lage, die Funktion von Sco1p zu erfüllen. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit konnt aber demonstriert werden, dass Sco2p zumindest teilweise Sco1p ersetzen kann. Somit kann für beide Proteine angenommen werden, dass sie überlappende Funktionen besitzen. Übereinstimmend wurde nachgewiesen, dass Sco2p - wie Sco1p - in der Lage ist, mit Cox17p und mit Cox2p zu interagieren und außerdem heteromere Komplexe mit Sco1p formiert. Es wurde ein Modell zur Wirkweise von Sco1p und Sco2p entwickelt.

Diese Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit dem mitochondrialen Sco1-Protein der Hefe Saccharomyces cerevisiae sowie mit weiteren Vertretern der Sco-Proteinfamilie. Sco1p ist essenziell für die Assemblierung der Cytochrom c Oxidase (COX), dem terminalen Komplex der Atmungskette. Aufgrund von genetischen Daten wurde angenommen, dass es an der Insertion von Cu-Ionen in den COX-Komplex beteiligt ist. Dabei existieren zwei unterschiedliche Vorstellungen über seine Wirkweise: Einerseits könnte Sco1p als Cu-Chaperon selbst Cu-Ionen binden und anschließend auf die Cu-tragenden COX-Untereinheiten Cox1p und/oder Cox2p übertragen. Andererseits könnte es als Disulfidreduktase die in die Cu-Bindung involvierten Cysteinreste von Cox2p reduzieren und somit die Voraussetzung für eine Cu-Anheftung an Cox2p schaffen. In beiden Fällen wird den unter den Sco-Proteinen konservierten Aminosäuren Cystein(148), Cystein(152) und Histidin(239) eine Schlüsselrolle zugedacht. Es wurde gezeigt, dass diese Aminosäuren tatsächlich essenziell für die Funktion von Sco1p sind. Die Daten dieser Arbeit sprechen dafür, dass Sco1p als Cu-Chaperon fungiert: Sco1p zeigt keine Aktivität als Disulfidreduktase. Außerdem interagiert Sco1p mit Cox17p - dem Protein, das Cu-Ionen in die Mitochondrien importiert - und geht mit Cox2p eine Wechselwirkung ein. Im Rahmen der Interaktionsanalysen wurde weiterhin gezeigt, dass Sco1p homomere Komplexe ausbildet. Ein weiterer Schwerpunkt dieser Arbeit lag in Untersuchungen zum homologen Sco2p aus Saccharomyces cerevisiae, das im Gegensatz zu Sco1p nicht essenziell für eine funkionsfähige COX ist. Trotz seiner großen Ähnlichkeit ist Sco2p nicht in der Lage, die Funktion von Sco1p zu erfüllen. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit konnt aber demonstriert werden, dass Sco2p zumindest teilweise Sco1p ersetzen kann. Somit kann für beide Proteine angenommen werden, dass sie überlappende Funktionen besitzen. Übereinstimmend wurde nachgewiesen, dass Sco2p - wie Sco1p - in der Lage ist, mit Cox17p und mit Cox2p zu interagieren und außerdem heteromere Komplexe mit Sco1p formiert. Es wurde ein Modell zur Wirkweise von Sco1p und Sco2p entwickelt.

COX deficiency in human presents a plethora of phenotypes which is not surprising given the complexity of the enzyme structure and the multiple factors and many steps required for its assembly. A functional COX requires three mitochondrially encoded subunits (Cox1p, Cox2p and Cox3p), at least 10 nuclearly encoded subunits, some of which are tissue specific, and a yet unknown number of assembly factors. Mutations in four of these factors, hSco1p, hSco2p, hCox10p and hSurf1p, have been associated with lethal COX deficiency in patients. Sco proteins, conserved from prokaryotes to eukaryotes, are probably involved in the insertion of copper in COX. The role of hSco1p and hSco2p in this process was investigated in this work. Moreover the importance of some hSco mutations found in patients was analysed. Both in vitro and in vivo analyses show that the hSco proteins are localised in the mitochondria. Both proteins are per se unable to substitute for ySco1p. However, a chimeric construct consisting of the N-terminal portion, the TM and a part of the C-terminal portion of ySco1p and the remaining C-terminal part derived from hSco1p was able to complement a ysco1 null mutant strain. This construct was used to define the role of a point mutation (P174L) found in the hSCO1 gene of infants suffering from ketoacidotic coma. These mutation was shown to affect the COX activity and the levels of Cox1p and Cox2p. The fact that copper was able to suppress this mutation, strongly outlined the importance of Sco proteins in the copper insertion in COX. The C-terminal portions of recombinant hSco1p and hSco2p were purified from E. coli by affinity chromatography. The purified proteins were subjected to atomic emission and absorption analyses and were shown to specifically bind copper. A stoichiometry of 1:1 for hSco2p and of 0,6:1 for hSco1p was determined. To identify the Aa residues involved in copper binding, in vitro mutagenesis was performed. hSco1p and hSco2p, lacking the cysteines of the predicted metal binding site CxxxC, show a dramatic decrease in the ability to bind copper. A model for the structure of the metal binding site in hSco proteins is proposed. hSco proteins could bind copper with trigonal coordination, involving the two cysteines of the CxxxC motif and a conserved histidine. The purified recombinant proteins were also used in an enzymatic assay to test their ability to reduce disulfide bridges, similar to thioredoxin-like proteins involved in the assembly of bacterial COX. Both hSco proteins were not able to act as thioredoxins suggesting a role for the hSco proteins as copper chaperones. To define the pathway of the copper transfer to COX, hSco proteins were tested for their ability to interact with hCox17p, a mitochondrial copper chaperone, and with Cox2p, which contains two copper ions. An interaction between hSco1p and Cox2p was detected. Both hSco proteins were shown to homomerise and to form heterodimers one with each other. Two mutations found in hSCO2 patients suffering from hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, (E140K and S225F) were shown not to affect the copper binding properties, the intracellular localisation and the ability to form homomers. In accordance to these data, a model is proposed in which hSco2p dimers transfer copper to hSco1p dimers. hSco1p dimers interact with COX and insert copper in the binuclear centre of Cox2p.

This thesis introduces the use of molecular methods for the conservation of several species of endangered saproxylic beetles in Europe. It focuses on the questions related to the DNA preservation and microsatellites development, as well as the evolutionary history and conservation of threatened species. Using the combination of mitochondrial and nuclear markers, the genetic diversity and reintroduction history of Cerambyx cerdo was assessed and the phylogeography of Rosalia alpina from the whole range of its distribution was studied. This information is valuable for designing more efficient conservation strategies.

COX deficiency in human presents a plethora of phenotypes which is not surprising given the complexity of the enzyme structure and the multiple factors and many steps required for its assembly. A functional COX requires three mitochondrially encoded subunits (Cox1p, Cox2p and Cox3p), at least 10 nuclearly encoded subunits, some of which are tissue specific, and a yet unknown number of assembly factors. Mutations in four of these factors, hSco1p, hSco2p, hCox10p and hSurf1p, have been associated with lethal COX deficiency in patients. Sco proteins, conserved from prokaryotes to eukaryotes, are probably involved in the insertion of copper in COX. The role of hSco1p and hSco2p in this process was investigated in this work. Moreover the importance of some hSco mutations found in patients was analysed. Both in vitro and in vivo analyses show that the hSco proteins are localised in the mitochondria. Both proteins are per se unable to substitute for ySco1p. However, a chimeric construct consisting of the N-terminal portion, the TM and a part of the C-terminal portion of ySco1p and the remaining C-terminal part derived from hSco1p was able to complement a ysco1 null mutant strain. This construct was used to define the role of a point mutation (P174L) found in the hSCO1 gene of infants suffering from ketoacidotic coma. These mutation was shown to affect the COX activity and the levels of Cox1p and Cox2p. The fact that copper was able to suppress this mutation, strongly outlined the importance of Sco proteins in the copper insertion in COX. The C-terminal portions of recombinant hSco1p and hSco2p were purified from E. coli by affinity chromatography. The purified proteins were subjected to atomic emission and absorption analyses and were shown to specifically bind copper. A stoichiometry of 1:1 for hSco2p and of 0,6:1 for hSco1p was determined. To identify the Aa residues involved in copper binding, in vitro mutagenesis was performed. hSco1p and hSco2p, lacking the cysteines of the predicted metal binding site CxxxC, show a dramatic decrease in the ability to bind copper. A model for the structure of the metal binding site in hSco proteins is proposed. hSco proteins could bind copper with trigonal coordination, involving the two cysteines of the CxxxC motif and a conserved histidine. The purified recombinant proteins were also used in an enzymatic assay to test their ability to reduce disulfide bridges, similar to thioredoxin-like proteins involved in the assembly of bacterial COX. Both hSco proteins were not able to act as thioredoxins suggesting a role for the hSco proteins as copper chaperones. To define the pathway of the copper transfer to COX, hSco proteins were tested for their ability to interact with hCox17p, a mitochondrial copper chaperone, and with Cox2p, which contains two copper ions. An interaction between hSco1p and Cox2p was detected. Both hSco proteins were shown to homomerise and to form heterodimers one with each other. Two mutations found in hSCO2 patients suffering from hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, (E140K and S225F) were shown not to affect the copper binding properties, the intracellular localisation and the ability to form homomers. In accordance to these data, a model is proposed in which hSco2p dimers transfer copper to hSco1p dimers. hSco1p dimers interact with COX and insert copper in the binuclear centre of Cox2p.

Cytochrome c oxidase (COX) is one of two known Cu-containing enzymes in mitochondria. Delivery and insertion of copper into COX are very complex processes that require multiple steps and involve a large number of assisting factors. One of the involved components is Cox11p, a copper binding protein in the inner mitochondrial membrane that is conserved from prokaryotes to eukaryotes. Cox11p is essential for respiratory growth and implicated in the assembly of the CuB site located in subunit Cox1p of COX. In the thesis the topology of Cox11p was determined and evidence for its association with the mitochondrial translation machinery is provided. The interaction of Cox11p with mitoribosomes is mediated by its single evolutionary conserved transmembrane segment and appears to be indirect and mediated by another conserved membrane protein(s). A model is proposed in which the CuB site is co-translationally formed by a transient interaction between Cox11p and the nascent Cox1p in the mitochondrial intermembrane space. In addition the genetic and biochemical characterization of S. pombe Cox11p homologue was performed. Two versions of cox11+ gene are detected in a haploid S. pombe genome. Cells lacking either of the cox11+ copies remain respiratory competent, whereas deletion of both S. pombe cox11+ alleles appears to result in either spore lethality or in severe decrease of spores viability. Thus, both versions of SpCox11p are functional and important. In S. pombe Cox11p exists as a tandem with the mitoribosomal protein Rsm22p. This precursor protein is cleaved during mitochondrial import into two mature protein species corresponding to Rsm22p- and Cox11p-like moieties.

No description available.

Hintergrund: Der Morbus Wilson ist eine seltene, angeborene Störung des Kupferstoffwechsels, bei welcher es zu Akkumulationen von Kupfer und infolgedessen zu Schäden in verschiedenen Organen des menschlichen Körpers kommt. Die Therapie besteht vor allem darin, den Kupferspiegel medikamentös zu senken. In einzelnen Fällen wurde der Kupferspiegel während der Therapie so weit gesenkt, dass bei den Patient*innen neurologische Symptome auftraten (sogenannte Kupfermangel-Myeloneuropathien). Kupfer ist ein essenzieller Kofaktor mehrerer Enzyme im menschlichen Körper, so auch der Cytochrom-c-Oxidase, welche einen wichtigen Bestandteil der mitochondrialen Atmungskette und damit der zellulären Energiegewinnung darstellt. Die Bestimmung ihrer Aktivität ist bisher für verschiedene Zellen und Gewebe etabliert worden, ein standardisierter Assay für die Bestimmung in Thrombozyten existiert jedoch nicht. Fragestellung: Für die optimale Bestimmung der Cytochrom-c-Oxidase-Aktivität in Thrombozyten sollen bereits existierende Methoden angepasst werden. Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es, die Aktivität der Cytochrom-c-Oxidase bei Morbus Wilson-Patient*innen unter kupfersenkender Therapie zu untersuchen und auf einen Zusammenhang zum Serum-Kupferspiegel zu prüfen. Die Frage, ob eine zu starke Kupfersenkung durch die Therapie des Morbus Wilson zu einer verringerten Cytochrom-c-Oxidase-Aktivität führt und ob diese Myeloneuropathien hervorruft, soll somit beantwortet werden. Material und Methodik: Es wurden 36 Morbus Wilson-Patient*innen unter kupfersenkender Therapie und 20 gesunde Kontrollproband*innen untersucht. Es erfolgte eine Blutabnahme für die Gewinnung der Thrombozyten sowie für die Bestimmung des Serum-Kupferspiegels. Die Bestimmung der Aktivität der Cytochrom-c-Oxidase erfolgte spektralphotometrisch in Thrombozyten. Des Weiteren wurde die Aktivität des Komplex-II der Atmungskette bestimmt, da dieser nicht kupferabhängig ist und seine Aktivität daher bei Kupfermangel nicht eingeschränkt sein sollte. Zusätzlich ermöglichte die Berechnung des Quotienten der Cytochrom-c-Oxidase-Aktivität und der Komplex-II-Aktivität die Erfassung sehr geringer Aktivitätseinschränkungen der Cytochrom-c-Oxidase. Im Rahmen dieser Dissertation wurde die spektralphotometrische Messung dieser beiden Enzymaktivitäten in Thrombozyten entwickelt und optimiert. Zur Justierung der Enzymaktivitäten bei unbekannter Mitochondrienmenge diente die Aktivität der ausschließlich in Mitochondrien vorkommenden Citratsynthase. Die so bestimmten Enzymaktivitäten wurden mittels SPSS zwischen Wilson-Patient*innen und Kontrollproband*innen verglichen und untereinander sowie mit dem Serum-Kupferspiegel auf Zusammenhänge untersucht. Ferner wurden die Morbus Wilson-Patient*innen klinisch auf Anzeichen für Myeloneuropathien untersucht, um die Untersuchungsergebnisse anschließend auf einen Zusammenhang zu der Cytochrom-c-Oxidase-Aktivität zu prüfen. Ergebnisse: Der auf den Untersuchungen von Kirby et al. beruhende Assay für die spektralphotometrische Bestimmung der Cytochrom-c-Oxidase-Aktivität in isolierten Mitochondrien konnte durch die Zugabe von 0,3 mM Dodecylmaltosid für die Messung in Thrombozyten erfolgreich optimiert werden. Ebenso wurde der Assay für die Komplex-II-Aktivität durch die Zugabe von 1 mg/ml BSA für die Bestimmung in Thrombozyten erweitert (Kirby et al., 2007). Die Aktivität der Cytochrom-c-Oxidase der Wilson-Patient*innen war signifikant niedriger als die der Kontrollgruppe, während die Kontrollgruppe eine signifikant höhere Komplex-II-Aktivität aufwies. Der Quotient von Cytochrom-c-Oxidase-Aktivität und Komplex-II-Aktivität war in der Patient*innengruppe folglich ebenfalls signifikant erniedrigt. In der Analyse aller untersuchten Proben zeigte sich ein signifikanter Zusammenhang zwischen Serum-Kupferspiegel und Cytochrom-c-Oxidase-Aktivität, welcher in der Betrachtung der Subgruppen (Wilson Patient*innen und Kontrollproband*innen) jedoch nicht nachgewiesen werden konnte. Keiner der untersuchten Patient*innen wies klinische Anzeichen für Myeloneuropathien auf. Schlussfolgerung: Der optimierte Assay der Cytochrom-c-Oxidase-Aktivität und Komplex-II-Aktivität in Thrombozyten erlaubt die zuverlässige Bestimmung der Atmungskettenaktivität in einem einfach zugänglichen Gewebe und ist damit für vielfältige Fragestellungen einsetzbar, wenn Einflüsse medizinischer Maßnahmen auf die mitochondriale Funktion untersucht werden sollen. Mit 36 Morbus Wilson-Patient*innen umfasst diese Arbeit eine der bisher größten untersuchten Patient*innengruppen dieses seltenen Krankheitsbildes. Der erniedrigte Quotient der Cytochrom-c-Oxidase-Aktivität und Komplex-II-Aktivität ist als Bestätigung einer Cytochrom-c-Oxidase-Einschränkung bei Morbus Wilson-Patient*innen unter kupfersenkender Therapie zu werten. Die Korrelation zwischen dem Serum-Kupferspiegel und der Cytochrom-c-Oxidase-Aktivität sowie die Aktivitätsreduktion der Cytochrom-c-Oxidase in der Patient*innengruppe ist eine wichtige Erkenntnis für die zukünftige Überwachung und gegebenenfalls Anpassung der Therapie von Morbus Wilson. Der Zusammenhang zwischen der Cytochrom-c-Oxidase-Aktivität und Myeloneuropathien sollte an Patient*innen mit Myeloneuropathien weiter untersucht werden. Es wurde jedoch gezeigt, dass Kupfermangel und niedrige Cytochrom-c-Oxidase-Aktivitäten nicht unbedingt mit Myeloneuropathien einhergehen. Therapie-induzierte Kupfermangel-Myeloneuropathien gilt es weiterhin zu vermeiden. / Background: Wilson’s disease is a rare, congenital disorder of copper metabolism, which leads to accumulations of copper and consequent damage in various organs of the human body. The therapy consists mainly in lowering the copper level by medication. In individual cases, the copper level was lowered during the therapy to such an extent that the patients developed neurological symptoms (so-called copper deficiency myeloneuropathies). Copper is an essential cofactor of several enzymes in the human body, including cytochrome c oxidase, which is an important component of the mitochondrial respiratory chain and thus of cellular energy production. The determination of its activity has been established so far for various cells and tissues, but a standardized assay for its determination in platelets does not exist. Purpose: For the optimal determination of cytochrome c oxidase activity in platelets, existing methods will be adapted. The aim of this work is to investigate the activity of cytochrome c oxidase in Wilson’s disease patients under copper-lowering therapy and to test for a correlation to serum copper levels. The question of whether excessive copper lowering by Wilson’s disease therapy leads to reduced cytochrome c oxidase activity and whether this possibly causes myeloneuropathies will thus be answered. Material and Methods: 36 Wilson’s disease patients under copper-lowering therapy and 20 healthy control subjects were studied. Blood was drawn for platelet collection and determination of serum copper levels. The activity of cytochrome c oxidase was determined spectrophotometrically in platelets. Furthermore, the activity of complex II of the respiratory chain was determined, since this is not copper-dependent and its activity should therefore not be limited in copper deficiency. In addition, calculation of the quotient of cytochrome c oxidase activity and complex II activity allowed detection of very low activity limitations of cytochrome c oxidase. In this dissertation, the spectrophotometric measurement of these two enzyme activities in platelets was developed and optimized. The activity of citrate synthase, which occurs exclusively in mitochondria, was used to adjust the enzyme activities when amount of mitochondria was unknown. The enzyme activities determined in this way were compared between Wilson’s disease patients and control subjects using SPSS and examined for correlations with each other and with serum copper levels. Furthermore, the Wilson’s disease patients were clinically examined for signs of myeloneuropathies, in order to subsequently examine the examination results for a correlation to the cytochrome c oxidase activity. Results: The assay for spectrophotometric determination of cytochrome c oxidase activity in isolated mitochondria, based on studies of Kirby et al, was successfully optimized for measurement in platelets by the addition of 0.3 mM dodecylmaltoside. Similarly, the assay for complex II activity was enhanced by the addition of 1 mg/ml BSA for determination in platelets (Kirby et al., 2007). The activity of cytochrome c oxidase of Wilson patients was significantly lower than that of the control group, with the control group had a significantly higher complex II activity. Consequently, the quotient of cytochrome c oxidase activity and complex II activity was also significantly lower in the Wilson patient group. A significant correlation between serum copper level and cytochrome c oxidase activity was found in the analysis of all samples examined, which, however, could not be proven in the examination of the subgroups (Wilson patients and control subjects). None of the patients examined showed clinical signs of myeloneuropathies. Conclusion: The optimized assay of cytochrome c oxidase activity and complex II activity in platelets allows reliable determination of respiratory chain activity in an easily accessible tissue and is thus applicable to a variety of questions when influences of medical interventions on mitochondrial function are to be investigated. With 36 Wilson's disease patients, this work includes one of the largest groups of patients of this rare disease studied so far. The decreased quotient of cytochrome c oxidase activity and complex II activity is a confirmation of cytochrome c oxidase impairment in Wilson’s disease patients on copper-lowering therapy. The correlation between serum copper level and cytochrome c oxidase activity as well as the reduction of cytochrome c oxidase activity in the patient group is an important finding for future monitoring and, if necessary, adjustment of Wilson’s disease therapy. The relationship between cytochrome c oxidase activity and myeloneuropathies should be further investigated in patients with myeloneuropathies. However, it has been shown that copper deficiency and low cytochrome c oxidase activities are not necessarily associated with myeloneuropathies. Therapy-induced copper deficiency myeloneuropathies should continue to be avoided.

Triops cancriformis (Crustacea: Notostraca) occurs in ephemeral habitats like rain pools or floodplain pools distributed over a large geographical range. The named habitats are disturbed by human impacts and, consequently, T. cancriformis is endangered throughout its distribution range. In the present thesis the populated habitats and threats are characterised and further morphological and genetic variations detected among and within European populations are reported. On the basis of recent investigations it is shown that T. cancriformis subspecies separation is hampered by an individual variability which points to the necessity of species revision. The analysis of mitochondrial gene sequence data suggests that the species has colonised most of Europe very recently. The advantage of a complex reproductive strategy in T. cancriformis in this process is discussed. The population structure resolved with nuclear DNA markers highlights that there is low allelic diversity among and within populations compared to other Branchiopoda (Daphnia). By means of the present study it can be shown that habitat conservation is most important to protect T. cancriformis.