by Wong Ping Shing. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1995. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 97-112). / ACKNOWLEDGMENTS --- p.i / ABSTRACT --- p.ii / ABBREVIATIONS --- p.viii / Chapter 1. --- INTRODUCTION --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1 --- General properties of zinc / Chapter 1.1.1 --- Biochemistry of zinc --- p.2 / Chapter 1.1.2 --- Distribution of zinc in body --- p.3 / Chapter 1.1.3 --- Roles of zinc in protein function --- p.4 / Chapter 1.2 --- Zinc and zinc-binding proteins in brain / Chapter 1.2.1 --- Distribution of zinc in brain --- p.7 / Chapter 1.2.2 --- Metabolism of zinc in brain --- p.9 / Chapter 1.2.3 --- Compartments of zinc in brain --- p.10 / Chapter 1.2.4 --- Zinc-binding proteins in brain --- p.12 / Chapter 1.3 --- Pathological conditions of brain in relation to zinc --- p.15 / Chapter 1.4 --- Aim of the project --- p.20 / Chapter 2. --- MATERIALS AND METHODS --- p.22 / Chapter 2.1 --- Detection of zinc-binding proteins / Chapter 2.1.1 --- Sodium-Dodecyl Sulphate Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) --- p.22 / Chapter 2.1.2 --- Electroblotting --- p.24 / Chapter 2.1.3 --- Radioactive zinc blotting --- p.25 / Chapter 2.1.4 --- Autoradiography --- p.25 / Chapter 2.2 --- Subcellular fractionation of porcine brain --- p.26 / Chapter 2.3 --- Purification and structural characterization of a 19 kDa zinc-binding protein / Chapter 2.3.1 --- Purification of a 19 kDa protein --- p.27 / Chapter 2.3.2 --- Sequencing of N-terminal blocked 19 kDa protein --- p.30 / Chapter 2.4 --- Characterization of the binding and biological properties of the 19 kDa zinc-binding protein / Chapter 2.4.1 --- Effect of divalent metal ions on zinc binding to the 19 kDa protein --- p.33 / Chapter 2.4.2 --- Effect of pH on the dissociation of radioactive zinc from the19 kDa protein --- p.34 / Chapter 2.4.3 --- Radioactive calcium blotting --- p.34 / Chapter 2.4.4 --- Interaction of radioactive zinc and radioactive calcium binding to the 19 kDa protein --- p.35 / Chapter 2.4.5 --- Calmodulin activity assay --- p.35 / Chapter 3. --- RESULTS / Chapter 3.1 --- Specificity of radioactive zinc-blot on zinc-binding protein detection --- p.38 / Chapter 3.2 --- Zinc-binding proteins in porcine brain --- p.38 / Chapter 3.3 --- Purification and identification of a cytosolic 19 kDa zinc- binding protein in porcine brain / Chapter 3.3.1 --- Zinc-dependent hydrophobic interaction chromatography --- p.44 / Chapter 3.3.2 --- N-terminal amino acid sequencing --- p.51 / Chapter 3.3.3 --- High pH native gel electrophoresis of 19 kDa protein --- p.51 / Chapter 3.4 --- The zinc and calcium binding properties of the 19 kDa protein / Chapter 3.4.1 --- Effect of pre-exposure to divalent cations on zinc binding --- p.54 / Chapter 3.4.2 --- Competition by divalent cations for zinc binding --- p.56 / Chapter 3.4.3 --- pH dependency of zinc dissociation --- p.56 / Chapter 3.4.4 --- Effect of zinc on radioactive calcium binding --- p.61 / Chapter 3.5 --- The biological activity of the 19 kDa protein / Chapter 3.5.1 --- Effect of the 19 kDa protein on the activity of calmodulin- dependent phosphodiesterase --- p.66 / Chapter 3.5.2 --- Effect of zinc on calmodulin-dependent phosphodiesterase activity --- p.69 / Chapter 3.5.4 --- "Effect of zinc on calcium-deficient, calmodulin-dependent phosphodiesterase activity" --- p.72 / Chapter 4. --- DISCUSSION / Chapter 4.1 --- Detection and Purification of zinc-binding proteins / Chapter 4.1.1 --- Strategy for the detection of zinc-binding proteins --- p.77 / Chapter 4.1.2 --- Purification of zinc-binding protein --- p.79 / Chapter 4.2 --- Amino acid sequencing of the 19 kDa protein --- p.82 / Chapter 4.3 --- Binding properties of the 19 kDa zinc-binding protein --- p.86 / Chapter 4.4 --- Effect of zinc and 19 kDa zinc-binding protein on calmodulin dependent phosphodiesterase --- p.92 / Chapter 4.5 --- Effect of zinc on the properties of calmodulin --- p.90 / Chapter 4.6 --- Significance of the ability of zinc to affect calmodulin activity --- p.94 / Chapter 5. --- CONCLUSION --- p.95 / Chapter 6. --- REFERENCES --- p.97

Egg activation is a series of highly coordinated processes that prepare the mature oocyte for embryogenesis. Typically associated with fertilisation, egg activation results in the resumption of the cell cycle, expression of maternal mRNAs and cross-linking of the vitelline membrane. While some aspects of egg activation, such as initiation factors in mammals and environmental cues in sea animals, have been well-documented, the mechanics of egg activation in many animals are still not well understood. This is especially true for animals where fertilisation and egg activation are unlinked. In order to elucidate how egg activation is regulated independently of fertilisation, I use Drosophila melanogaster as a model system. This insect provides extensive genetic tools, ease of manipulation for experimentation and is amenable for imaging. Through visualisation of calcium, Processing bodies and meiotic spindles, I show that osmotic pressure acts as an initiation cue for the calcium wave and downstream processes, including the resumption of cell cycle and the dispersion of the translational repression sites. I further show that aquaporin channels, together with external sodium ions, play a role in coordinating swelling of the oocyte in response to the osmotic pressure. I proceed to identify the requirement of internal calcium sources together with a dynamic actin cytoskeleton for a calcium wave to occur. Through co-visualisation of calcium and actin, I provide the first evidence that the calcium wave is followed by a wavefront of non-cortical F-actin at egg activation, which requires the calcium wave. Genetic analysis supports a model where changes in osmotic pressure trigger the calcium wave via stretch sensitive calcium channels in the oocyte membrane and the calcium wave is relayed by nearby channels via the actin cytoskeleton. My work concludes that the mechanism of egg activation in Drosophila is more similar to plants, compared to most vertebrates.

Les cellules épithéliales sont des cellules polarisées qui forment l’un des types cellulaires le plus abondant dans le corps humain. Leur polarité apico-basale (A/B) est établie et maintenue par la ségrégation asymétrique de protéines adaptatrices hautement conservées. Cette polarité est essentielle pour de nombreuses fonctions cellulaires clés comme l’adhésion (jonctions intercellulaires) ou la signalisation et la prolifération par la localisation et la concentration des complexes de signalisation. Durant la cancérogénèse, un grand nombre de ces processus est dérégulé aboutissant à la sur-prolifération, la migration et/ou l’invasion des cellules cancéreuses. Une meilleure compréhension des mécanismes à l’origine de ces processus est indispensable pour trouver de nouvelles cibles thérapeutiques pour le traitement du cancer. Dans l’équipe, nous sommes particulièrement intéressés par les protéines adaptatrices à domaines PDZ (domaine de liaison protéine-protéine). De par leur structure modulaire et la diversité de leurs partenaires, ces protéines adaptatrices sont impliquées dans la régulation de très nombreuses fonctions et fournissent des plateformes où différents processus peuvent être intégrés. Durant mon doctorat, j’ai étudié deux protéines adaptatrices dans le système animal modèle Drosophila melanogaster, Bbg et Magi, impliquées dans deux processus cellulaires essentiels : la dynamique des jonctions et la prolifération. Grâce aux molécules d’adhésion, les cellules non seulement restent cohésives dans un tissu, mais c’est aussi à ce niveau qu’elles peuvent obtenir une information concernant la densité cellulaire d'un tissu. Cette information est alors relayée au cytosquelette d’actine via des protéines adaptatrices spécialisées dans le but de réguler la prolifération et la voie Hippo. Cependant, le contrôle de la voie de signalisation Hippo par certaines protéines adaptatrices et par le cytosquelette d’actine n'est que partiellement compris à ce jour. Dans le laboratoire, nous étudions notamment le rôle d'une nouvelle protéine adaptatrice apicale nommée Big Bang (Bbg) dans le disque d’aile de la drosophile. Nous nous sommes intéressés à Bbg car c’est une cible de la voie Notch chez la drosophile et son homologue humain PDZD2 (pour PDZ domain-containing 2 protein) est sur-exprimé dans plusieurs cancers (sein et prostate).Mes résultats montrent que Bbg est un nouveau régulateur du cytosquelette d’actine et de la voie Hippo. Une étude détaillée de la fonction de Bbg et de ses partenaires permet de mieux comprendre les relations existantes entre dynamique de l’actine et prolifération. Bbg induit une accumulation d’actine filamenteuse en augmentant l’activité d’Enabled et la phosphorylation de Myosin Light Chain (MLC). Cette régulation résulte en une augmentation de l’activité de Yorkie, effecteur final de la voie Hippo, pour soutenir la prolifération cellulaire.La régulation des jonctions adhérentes est une étape cruciale lors de l’évolution d'une tumeur solide. Malgré les récentes avancées dans le domaine, de nombreux aspects clés de la dynamique des jonctions restent peu caractérisés.Dans le laboratoire, nous recherchons de nouveaux régulateurs de jonctions et grâce au modèle de remodelage des AJs lors du développement de l’œil de pupe de drosophile. Nous avons identifié Magi en tant que protéine adaptatrice recrutant le complexe formé de RASSF8 et ASPP. Magi régule le recrutement de Bazooka à la membrane, le dépôt d’E-Cadhérine et des Caténines et finalement le remodelage des jonctions pendant la morphogénèse. J’ai identifié Echinoid, une protéine de type immunoglobuline impliquée dans l’adhésion cellulaire et la régulation de la voie Hippo, comme un nouveau partenaire responsable du recrutement de Magi aux futures zones de jonctions. / Epithelial cells are polarised cells that form one of the most abundant cell types in the human body. Their apico-basal (A/B) polarity is established and maintained by the asymmetric segregation of highly conserved scaffold proteins. Proper A/B polarity is critical for many key cellular functions such as intercellular junctions and therefore adhesion, or signalling and proliferation by localising and concentrating signalling complexes. During carcinogenesis, many of these processes are mis-regulated leading to the over-proliferation, migration and/or invasion of cancer cells. A better understanding of the mechanisms underlying these processes is really needed to find new therapeutic targets in cancer treatment.In the team, we are particularly interested in scaffold proteins with PDZ domains (protein-protein interaction domains). Due to their modular structure, the high number of interactions they engage in, and the variety of their binding partners, these scaffold proteins are implicated in the regulation of many key cellular functions and processes. During my PhD, I have studied two scaffold proteins in the Drosophila melanogaster animal model, Bbg and Magi, which are involved in two important cell processes: adherens junctions (AJs) dynamic and cell proliferation.Through adhesion molecules, epithelial cells not only remain cohesive, but can also sense cellular density in a tissue and relay this information through dedicated scaffolds to the actin cytoskeleton to ultimately regulate the Hippo pathway and proliferation. However, many aspects of the control of Hippo signalling by apical scaffolds and the actin cytoskeleton are still poorly understood. In the laboratory, we are interested in the study of a new conserved apical scaffold, Big Bang (Bbg). Bbg is a new and quite unknown protein expressed in a variety of Drosophila epithelia, and appears as a potential Notch target in Drosophila. Its’ human homolog called PDZD2 (PDZ domain-containing 2 protein) has been shown to be over-expressed in several types of cancers (breast and prostate cancers).My results show that Bbg is a new regulator of the actin cytoskeleton and of the Hippo pathway in Drosophila. A detailed study of Bbg function and of its associated partners have helped to better understand the intricate relationships between actin dynamics and proliferation. My results suggest that Bbg promotes accumulation of filamentous actin (F-Actin) through the increase of the activity of Enabled (Ena) and the phosphorylation of the molecular motor Myosin Light Chain (MLC). This regulation leads to the increase of Yorkie activity, the final effector of the Hippo pathway, to promote cell proliferation.The regulation of adhesion, and in particular of Adherens Junctions (AJs), is a critical step during the evolution of solid tumours. A better understanding of how these structures are regulated will provide valuable insights into different phases of the disease. Despite the recent advances, many key aspects of AJ dynamics remain poorly understood. In the laboratory, we are interested in the identification of new AJs regulators. Using the remodelling of AJs during the development of the Drosophila pupal eye as a model, we have identified Magi as a scaffold recruiting a complex formed by RASSF8 and ASPP, regulating Bazooka membrane recruitment, E-Cadherin and catenins deposition, and ultimately AJs remodelling during morphogenesis. I uncovered Echinoid, an immunoglobulin-like protein involved in cell adhesion and in Hippo pathway regulation, as a new binding partner responsible for the recruitment of Magi at future AJ sites.

Myelination of axons in the central and peripheral nervous system (CNS and PNS) is required for saltatory propagation of nerve impulses. Myelinated axons are organized in functionally distinct membrane domains and the correct formation and maintenance of these domains is fundamental for the correct propagation of the electrical impulse; however, the underlying mechanisms by which these domains are specified are just starting to be unravelled. The paranodal junctions (PNJs) have been shown to contribute to node formation in the CNS and to domain maintenance both in the CNS and PNS. In this thesis I have studied the function of the linkage of the PNJs to the axonal cytoskeleton in regulating these processes by using a combination of knock out and transgenic rescue strategies. Further, I have initiated studies on the live imaging of node assembly. I have shown that the link between the PNJ and the axonal cytoskeleton is required for both the correct timing of oligodendrocyte process migration and for clustering nodal proteins at heminodes, before nodes of Ranvier are formed. Failure to correctly regulate these events during development results in shorter internodes in adults. Further, I have shown the importance of the axonal paranodal cytoskeleton in the maintenance of the node of Ranvier, both in CNS and PNS. In the absence of a link between the PNJ and the axonal cytoskeleton, paranodes disassemble, which causes disruption of both nodal and juxtaparanodal domains. Electron microscopy shows that, despite paranodal disruption, transverse bands are preserved when the anchorage of the PNJ to the axonal cytoskeleton is removed. Surprisingly, the preservation of these structures is associated with the amelioration of the neurological defects seen in mice lacking PNJs. In order to study nodal assembly, I have initiated studies on the transport of the nodal proteins Neurofascin186 and β1Nav tagged with fluorescent tags in transgenic mice, in order to analyse axonal transport during development. I have exploited the triangularis muscle explant preparation and have analysed transport of nodal proteins in young and adult mice. I have shown that transport speeds decrease with age and that the two proteins are transported at different speeds in young animals, but these differences do not persist in adults. This suggests that during myelination these proteins are transported in different vesicles and that this may change during development.

FtsZ é homóloga de tubulina, presente em quase todas as bactérias, que se autoassocia em filamentos que formam uma estrutura chamada anel Z dentro das células. O anel Z quando formado recruta de um macrocomplexo proteico chamado divisomo, que é responsável pela síntese do septo de divisão, formando duas células filhas. Diversos moduladores se ligam diretamente a FtsZ regulam sua polimerização, controlando o momento e o local onde o anel Z é formado. MciZ é um peptídeo de 40 aminoácidos expresso durante a esporulação de Bacillus subtilis e inibe a formação do do anel Z na célula mãe. O objetivo do presente trabalho foi estudar a interação entre as proteínas FtsZ e MciZ e investigar os mecanismos envolvidos na inibição da polimerização de FtsZ por MciZ. Através de uma triagem genética, usando uma biblioteca de mutantes de ftsZ, identificamos treze mutações em ftsZ que conferiram resistência à superexpressão de MciZ in vivo. Sete delas eram capazes de crescer na presença e na ausência da superexpressão de MciZ e as outras seis se mostraram dependentes da superexpressão de MciZ. A partir da coexpressão e copurificação do complexo FtsZ:MciZ, observamos que todas as proteínas mutantes ainda continuavam interagindo com MciZ in vitro. O Kd estimado para a interação entre as proteínas foi de 150±50nM, e mostrou-se que MciZ não se liga nem ao CTP (C-Terminal Peptide) de FtsZ, nem compete com GTP para a ligação no mesmo sítio. Usando construções truncadas de MciZ, determinou-se que o N-terminal da proteína (resíduos 1 ao 27) é suficiente para inibição. A partir das estruturas tridimensionais de MciZ (RMN) e do complexo FtsZ:MciZ (cristalografia de raios x), determinou-se que MciZ é um peptídeo desenovelado, que assume uma estrutura terciária ao interagir através da sua α-hélice H2 e folha-β B2 com a α-hélice H10 e a folha-β S9 de FtsZ. MciZ mostrou-se capaz de reduzir o tamanho dos protofilamentos de FtsZ de forma subestequiométrica, gerando fragmentos menores de filamentos. Proporções de MciZ:FtsZ de 1:10 foram suficientes para extinguir completamente o anel Z, confirmando a inibição subestequiométrica também in vivo. A conservação da inibição da fusão FtsZ-MciZ e a cinética de despolimerização de FtsZ induzida por MciZ provaram que MciZ não é um simples sequestrador. Marcações fluorescentes de MciZ sugeriram que o peptídeo é capaz de interagir com o anel Z in vivo, e também decorar feixes de FtsZ in vitro, formando focos localizados frequentemente na ponta dos filamentos. Cossedimentações com polímeros de FtsZ mostraram a presença de MciZ ou da fusão FtsZ-MciZ. Apesar de MciZ induzir o aumento da atividade GTPáscia específica de FtsZ, a ausência de hidrólise de GTP não eliminou o efeito subestequiométrico de MciZ. Nossos resultados em conjunto mostram que MciZ é um capeador dos filamentos de FtsZ, bloqueando a elongação pela ponta menos e bloqueando o anelamento entre protofilamentos / FtsZ is a tubulin-like protein present in most bacteria, that self-assembles into filaments forming a structure known as Z-ring in the cells. Following formation, the Z- ring recruits a protein macrocomplex, the divisome, which is responsible by the division septum synthesis, resulting in two daughter cells. Many modulators interact directly to FtsZ, regulating its polymerization and controlling the time and place of the Z-ring formation. MciZ is a 40-amino-acid peptide that is expressed during sporulation in Bacillus subtilis and inhibits the formation of the Z-ring in the mother-cell. The aim of this work was to study the interaction between FtsZ and MciZ proteins, and to investigate the mechanisms involved in FtsZ inhibition by MciZ. Applying a genetic screening, using an ftsZ mutant library, we identified 13 mutations on ftsZ that conferred resistance to MciZ overexpression in vivo. Seven of them were able to grow either in the presence or absence of MciZ overexpression, and the other six showed to be dependent on it. With the co-expression and co-purification of the FtsZ:MciZ complex, we observed all mutant proteins still interact with MciZ in vitro. Estimated Kd for the interaction was 150±50nM, and it was demonstrated that MciZ does not bind to FtsZ CTP (C-Terminal Peptide), nor does it compete with GTP for the same binding site. Using truncated versions of MciZ, it was determined that its N-terminal (residues 1 to 27) is sufficient for the inhibition. Based on the tridimensional structure of MciZ (NMR) and of the FtsZ:MciZ complex (x- ray crystallography), it was determined that MciZ is an unstructured peptide that assumes a tertiary structure by interacting with FtsZ α-helix H10 and β-sheet S9 through its α-helix H2 and β-sheet B2. MciZ was able to reduce the size of FtsZ protofilaments in a substoichiometric manner, generating smaller fragmented filaments. 1:10 ratios of MciZ:FtsZ were sufficient to completely extinguish the Z-ring, thus confirming the substoichiometric inhibition in vivo as well. The inhibition of FtsZ polymerization by the FtsZ-MciZ fusion and the FtsZ depolymerization kinetics induced by MciZ proved that MciZ is not a simple sequesterer. Fluorescent dyeing of MciZ suggests the peptide is able to interact with the Z-ring in vivo, as well as decorate FtsZ bundles in vivo, forming localized spots frequently at the filaments\' ends. Co- sedimentations with FtsZ polymers showed the presence of MciZ or of the FtsZ-MciZ fusion. Despite MciZ-induced increase in specific GTPase activity of FtsZ, the lack of GTP hydrolysis did not eliminate the substoichiometric effect of MciZ. Combined, our results show that MciZ is an FtsZ filament capper, blocking elongation at the minus end and blocking the annealing between protofilaments

Le cytosquelette bactérien des homologues d’actine (protéines de la famille MreB) joue un rôle majeur dans la morphogénèse cellulaire. Des homologues de MreB sont retrouvés chez la plupart des espèces bactériennes non sphériques, où ils sont essentiels pour la viabilité cellulaire. Les bactéries à Gram-positif ont généralement plusieurs isoformes. L’organisme modèle Bacillus subtilis en possède trois : MreB, Mbl et MreBH, tous trois impliqués dans la détermination de la forme de la cellule. Le postulat actuel est une organisation, des complexes de synthèse du peptidoglycane, le long des parois latérales par les filaments hélicoïdaux des MreB-like. Cependant, les mécanismes moléculaires et les protéines effectrices impliqués dans cette fonction ne sont pas encore élucidés. Par analogie avec les rôles de l’actine eucaryote, des implications dans d’autres processus cellulaires cruciaux et la présence de partenaires protéiques sont également attendus pour les actines procaryotes. Afin d’explorer les rôles des protéines MreB chez B. subtilis nous avons généré, par des criblages génomiques double hybride chez la levure, un réseau d’interaction protéine-protéine centré sur MreB, Mbl et MreBH. Une vérification systématique et drastique de toutes les interactions obtenues lors des criblages a été réalisée afin d’éliminer les faux positifs. Les interactions identifiées révèlent des liens entre les protéines MreB-like et seize protéines issues de catégories fonctionnelles variées ou de fonction inconnue. Une étude exploratoire a été menée pour huit des protéines partenaires par des approches in silico et in vivo et nous a permis de sélectionner une seule interaction à caractériser plus en détail. Nous nous sommes principalement intéressés à l’interaction physique et directe entre MreB et DapL, une protéine essentielle vraisemblablement impliquée dans la voie de biosynthèse des précurseurs du peptidoglycane, par analogie à DapE d’E. coli. La caractérisation approfondie de DapL a confirmé son essentialité dans la synthèse du peptidoglycane. Bien que l’interaction MreB-DapL ait été confirmée biochimiquement, son rôle biologique exact n’a pas été élucidé. Cependant, nous avons mis en évidence d’autres interactions entre MreB et DapG, LysA et MurE, des enzymes également impliquées dans les étapes précoces de la synthèse du peptidoglycane. L’existence de telles interactions renforce le rôle du cytosquelette MreB de B. subtilis dans l’orchestration des machineries de synthèse de la paroi cellulaire. / Bacterial actin homologues (MreB proteins) play a major role in cell morphogenesis in non-spherical bacteria. The prevailing model postulates that helical, membrane-associated MreB-like filaments organize elongation-specific peptidoglycan-synthesizing complexes along the sidewalls. However, the mechanistic details, as well as the effector proteins of MreBs morphogenetic function, remain to be elucidated. MreB proteins are also involved in DNA segregation, cell polarity, cell motility and, by analogy to eukaryotic actins, possibly in other functions that require the targeting and accurate positioning of proteins and molecular complexes in the cell. Gram-positive bacteria usually have more than one MreB isoform. Our model organism, Bacillus subtilis, has three called MreB, Mbl and MreBH. To explore the roles of the MreB cytoskeleton in B. subtilis, we used genome-wide yeast two-hybrid screens to identify proteins that physically associate with MreB, Mbl and MreBH. Stringent specificity assays were systematically performed to remove false positives and confirm the specificity of all potential interactions identified in the screens. A protein-protein interaction network centered on the three MreBs was generated which includes 16 protein partners. This interaction network provides insights into the links of MreB proteins with proteins belonging to several functional categories as well as proteins of unknown function. An exploratory study was conducted in silico and in vivo for 8 of the partner proteins identified in the network and allowed us to select one interaction for a more in-depth analysis. We next focused in the physical interaction between MreB and DapL, an essential protein presumably involved in the early steps of peptidoglycan biosynthesis. The characterization of DapL confirmed its essential role in cell wall synthesis. The MreB-DapL interaction was confirmed biochemically and we showed that MreB also associates with other proteins involved in the synthesis of the PG precursors (DapG, LysA and MurE). Together, these results suggest that B. subtilis MreB orchestrates the PG biosynthetic cytosolic machineries to achieve and maintain its rod shape.

FtsZ é homóloga de tubulina, presente em quase todas as bactérias, que se autoassocia em filamentos que formam uma estrutura chamada anel Z dentro das células. O anel Z quando formado recruta de um macrocomplexo proteico chamado divisomo, que é responsável pela síntese do septo de divisão, formando duas células filhas. Diversos moduladores se ligam diretamente a FtsZ regulam sua polimerização, controlando o momento e o local onde o anel Z é formado. MciZ é um peptídeo de 40 aminoácidos expresso durante a esporulação de Bacillus subtilis e inibe a formação do do anel Z na célula mãe. O objetivo do presente trabalho foi estudar a interação entre as proteínas FtsZ e MciZ e investigar os mecanismos envolvidos na inibição da polimerização de FtsZ por MciZ. Através de uma triagem genética, usando uma biblioteca de mutantes de ftsZ, identificamos treze mutações em ftsZ que conferiram resistência à superexpressão de MciZ in vivo. Sete delas eram capazes de crescer na presença e na ausência da superexpressão de MciZ e as outras seis se mostraram dependentes da superexpressão de MciZ. A partir da coexpressão e copurificação do complexo FtsZ:MciZ, observamos que todas as proteínas mutantes ainda continuavam interagindo com MciZ in vitro. O Kd estimado para a interação entre as proteínas foi de 150±50nM, e mostrou-se que MciZ não se liga nem ao CTP (C-Terminal Peptide) de FtsZ, nem compete com GTP para a ligação no mesmo sítio. Usando construções truncadas de MciZ, determinou-se que o N-terminal da proteína (resíduos 1 ao 27) é suficiente para inibição. A partir das estruturas tridimensionais de MciZ (RMN) e do complexo FtsZ:MciZ (cristalografia de raios x), determinou-se que MciZ é um peptídeo desenovelado, que assume uma estrutura terciária ao interagir através da sua α-hélice H2 e folha-β B2 com a α-hélice H10 e a folha-β S9 de FtsZ. MciZ mostrou-se capaz de reduzir o tamanho dos protofilamentos de FtsZ de forma subestequiométrica, gerando fragmentos menores de filamentos. Proporções de MciZ:FtsZ de 1:10 foram suficientes para extinguir completamente o anel Z, confirmando a inibição subestequiométrica também in vivo. A conservação da inibição da fusão FtsZ-MciZ e a cinética de despolimerização de FtsZ induzida por MciZ provaram que MciZ não é um simples sequestrador. Marcações fluorescentes de MciZ sugeriram que o peptídeo é capaz de interagir com o anel Z in vivo, e também decorar feixes de FtsZ in vitro, formando focos localizados frequentemente na ponta dos filamentos. Cossedimentações com polímeros de FtsZ mostraram a presença de MciZ ou da fusão FtsZ-MciZ. Apesar de MciZ induzir o aumento da atividade GTPáscia específica de FtsZ, a ausência de hidrólise de GTP não eliminou o efeito subestequiométrico de MciZ. Nossos resultados em conjunto mostram que MciZ é um capeador dos filamentos de FtsZ, bloqueando a elongação pela ponta menos e bloqueando o anelamento entre protofilamentos / FtsZ is a tubulin-like protein present in most bacteria, that self-assembles into filaments forming a structure known as Z-ring in the cells. Following formation, the Z- ring recruits a protein macrocomplex, the divisome, which is responsible by the division septum synthesis, resulting in two daughter cells. Many modulators interact directly to FtsZ, regulating its polymerization and controlling the time and place of the Z-ring formation. MciZ is a 40-amino-acid peptide that is expressed during sporulation in Bacillus subtilis and inhibits the formation of the Z-ring in the mother-cell. The aim of this work was to study the interaction between FtsZ and MciZ proteins, and to investigate the mechanisms involved in FtsZ inhibition by MciZ. Applying a genetic screening, using an ftsZ mutant library, we identified 13 mutations on ftsZ that conferred resistance to MciZ overexpression in vivo. Seven of them were able to grow either in the presence or absence of MciZ overexpression, and the other six showed to be dependent on it. With the co-expression and co-purification of the FtsZ:MciZ complex, we observed all mutant proteins still interact with MciZ in vitro. Estimated Kd for the interaction was 150±50nM, and it was demonstrated that MciZ does not bind to FtsZ CTP (C-Terminal Peptide), nor does it compete with GTP for the same binding site. Using truncated versions of MciZ, it was determined that its N-terminal (residues 1 to 27) is sufficient for the inhibition. Based on the tridimensional structure of MciZ (NMR) and of the FtsZ:MciZ complex (x- ray crystallography), it was determined that MciZ is an unstructured peptide that assumes a tertiary structure by interacting with FtsZ α-helix H10 and β-sheet S9 through its α-helix H2 and β-sheet B2. MciZ was able to reduce the size of FtsZ protofilaments in a substoichiometric manner, generating smaller fragmented filaments. 1:10 ratios of MciZ:FtsZ were sufficient to completely extinguish the Z-ring, thus confirming the substoichiometric inhibition in vivo as well. The inhibition of FtsZ polymerization by the FtsZ-MciZ fusion and the FtsZ depolymerization kinetics induced by MciZ proved that MciZ is not a simple sequesterer. Fluorescent dyeing of MciZ suggests the peptide is able to interact with the Z-ring in vivo, as well as decorate FtsZ bundles in vivo, forming localized spots frequently at the filaments\' ends. Co- sedimentations with FtsZ polymers showed the presence of MciZ or of the FtsZ-MciZ fusion. Despite MciZ-induced increase in specific GTPase activity of FtsZ, the lack of GTP hydrolysis did not eliminate the substoichiometric effect of MciZ. Combined, our results show that MciZ is an FtsZ filament capper, blocking elongation at the minus end and blocking the annealing between protofilaments

Intracellular cargo transport involves the movement of critical cellular components (e.g. vesicles, organelles, mRNA, chromosomes) along cytoskeletal tracks by tiny molecular motors. Myosin Va motors have been demonstrated to play a vital role in the transport of cargos destined for the cell membrane by navigating their cargos through the three-dimensional actin networks of the cell. Transport of cargo through these networks presents many challenges, including directional and physical obstacles which teams of myosin Va-bound to a single cargo must overcome. Specifically, myosin Va motors are presented with numerous actin-actin intersections and dense networks of filaments which can act as a physical barrier to transport. Due to the complexities of studying myosin Va cargo transport in cells, much effort has been focused on the in vitro observation and analysis of myosin Va transport along single actin filaments or simple actin cytoskeletal models. However, these model systems often rely on non-physiological cargos (e.g. beads, quantum dots) and two-dimensional arrangements of actin attached to glass surfaces. Interestingly, a disconnect exists between the transport of cargo on these simple model systems and studies of myosin Va transport on suspended 3D actin arrangements or cellular networks which show longer run lengths, increased velocities, and straighter, more directed trajectories. One solution to this discrepancy is that the cell may use the fluidity of the cargo surface, the recruitment of myosin Va motor teams, and the 3D geometry of the actin, to finely tune the transport of intracellular cargo depending on cellular need. To understand how myosin Va motors transport their cargo through 3D networks of actin, we investigated myosin Va motor ensembles transporting fluorescent 350 nm lipid-bilayer cargo through arrangements of suspended 3D actin filaments. This was accomplished using single molecule fluorescent imaging, three-dimensional super resolution Stochastic Optical Reconstruction Microscopy (STORM), optical tweezers, and in silico modeling. We found that when moving along 3D actin filaments, myosin motors could be recruited from across the fluid lipid cargo’s surface to the filaments which enabled dynamic teams to be formed and explore the full actin filaments binding landscape. When navigating 3D actin-actin intersections these teams capable of maneuvering their cargo through the intersection in a way that encouraged the vesicles to continue straight rather than switch filaments and turn at the intersection. We hypothesized that this finding may be the source of the relatively straight directed runs by myosin Va-bound cargo observed in living cells. To test this, we designed 3D actin networks where the vesicles interacted with 2-6 actin filaments simultaneously. Actin forms polarized filaments, which, in cells, generally have their plus-ends facing the exterior of the cell; the same direction in which myosin Va walks. We found that to maintain straight directed trajectories and not become stationary within the network, vesicles needed to move along filaments with a bias in their polarity. This allows for cargo-bound motors to align their motion along the polarized networks and produced productive motion despite physical and directional obstacles. Together this work demonstrates the physical properties of the cargo, the geometric arrangement of the actin, and the mechanical properties of the motor are all critical aspects of a robust myosin Va transport system.

La perte auditive est le trouble sensoriel le plus commun avec 40 % des personnes de plus de 65 ans affectées, entraînant, chez ces patients une dégradation de leur qualité de vie et un isolement sociale. Les principales causes sont le vieillissement ou l'exposition au bruit, mais les mutations génétiques sont aussi à l'origine de déficits auditifs. Parmi ces surdités, le Syndrome de Chudley McCullough (CMCS) est une maladie rare caractérisée par une surdité sévère et précoce associée à des anomalies cérébrales (Chudley et al., 1997). Récemment, des mutations du gène GPSM2 (G protein signaling modulator 2) ont été décrites comme étant responsables de cette pathologie sans que l'on en connaisse les mécanismes (Walsh et al., 2010). A l'aide d'un modèle d'étude murin de cette pathologie, nous avons identifié les bases moléculaires de la pathologie ainsi qu’une nouvelle fonction moléculaire pour Gpsm2 sur la modulation du cytosquelette d’actine. La perturbation de cette fonction affect à la fois la maturation des cellules auditives et la croissance des jeunes neurones, pouvant expliquer les surdités et l’hypoplasie du corps calleux décrits chez ces patients (Mauriac et al., 2017). De plus, nous avons identifié les partenaires de Gpsm2, les protéines Gαi, comme indispensables à la fonction auditive (Beer-Hammer et al., 2018). Au niveau moléculaire, nous avons découvert une nouvelle interaction de Gpsm2 avec une protéine essentielle à la maturation des cellules auditives et impliquées dans les surdités de type Usher, la Whirlin.Par conséquent, notre étude a permis de clarifier l’étiologie du CMCS et de montrer que sa complexité et son aspect multisyndromique sont dus au rôle multifonctionnel du complexe Gpsm2/G⍺i non seulement sur la dynamique de la tubuline dans des cellules en prolifération et en post-mitotiques (Ezan et al., 2013), mais aussi sur la dynamique d’actine (Mauriac et al., 2017). / Hearing loss is the most common sensory disorder, affecting 40% of people over 65 years old, leading for these patients, to the deterioration of their quality of life and to their social isolation. The main causes are aging or exposure to noise. However, many genes can also cause deafness. Among these deafnesses, the Chudley McCullough Syndrome (CMCS) is a rare disease characterized by severe and early deafness associated with brain abnormalities (Chudley et al., 1997). Recently, mutations in the GPSM2 (G protein signaling modulator 2) gene were found to be causative of this pathology, but the molecular basis were unknown (Walsh et al., 2010). Using a murine model of this pathology, we identified the molecular basis of this pathology as well as a new molecular function for Gpsm2 on the modulation of actin cytoskeleton. The disruption of this function leads to defect of the maturation of auditory hair cells and the reduction of the outgrowth of young neurons which may explain the deafness and the hypoplasia of the corpus callosum described in these patients (Mauriac et al., 2017). In addition, we identified partners of Gpsm2, Gαi proteins, as essential for auditory function (Beer-Hammer et al., 2018). At the molecular level, we have discovered a new interaction of Gpsm2 with a protein essential for the maturation of auditory cells and involved in Usher type deafness, Whirlin.Therefore, our study clarified the etiology of CMCS and show that the complexity and multisyndromic aspect of this pathology is due to the multifunctional role of the complex Gpsm2/G⍺i not only on tubulin dynamics in proliferating cells and post-mitotic cells (Ezan et al., 2013), but also on actin dynamics (Mauriac et al., 2017).

An understanding of the pathways responsible for differentiation in pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) would accelerate their translation to medical therapies. Specifically, studies that identify criteria for the better design of experiments targeting certain phenotypes would allow for the generation of cell sources adequate for transplantation. In this dissertation, we aimed at elucidating the role of the cytoskeleton in the spontaneous differentiation of PSCs in two dimensional (2D) and three dimensional (3D) microenvironments. First, we quantified the expression of the cytoskeleton in ESCs, iPSCs, and the iPSC source phenotype, showing that there were indeed differences in the expression of microfilaments and certain intermediate filaments among all three phenotypes. Next, we found that there were inherent differences in ESC differentiation when cultured in 2D and 3D microenvironments. Lastly, alterations in the cytoskeleton were found to decrease mesodermal differentiation in 3D culture, while increase both mesodermal and endodermal differentiation in 2D culture. Taken together, we identified the cytoskeleton as a regulator of differentiation to the mesodermal and endodermal lineages in both 2D and 3D culture. / acase@tulane.edu