Submitted by (ana.araujo@ufrpe.br) on 2016-08-09T14:23:02Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Patricia Silva Nascimento.pdf: 1820001 bytes, checksum: f1196e1a5ad73d884c17e09610faf980 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-09T14:23:02Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Patricia Silva Nascimento.pdf: 1820001 bytes, checksum: f1196e1a5ad73d884c17e09610faf980 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011-02-21 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / Quantum computing is a recent area of research that encompasses three known areas: mathematics, physics and computing. With the research in quantum algorithms came the need to understand and express such algorithms in terms of programming. Several languages and programming models for high-level quantum have been proposed in recent years. Quantum mechanics (QM) is a set of mathematical rules that serve for the construction of physical theories, from its inception until the present day it has been applied in various branches. In this context we developed the Quantum Computation, perhaps the most spectacular proposal for practical implementation of QM. The difficulty in developing quantum algorithms provides the use of alternative techniques to the solution of purely algorithmic problems, such as machine learning and genetic algorithms. Carlo Trugenberger proposes a model of quantum associative memory which binary patterns of n bits are stored in a quantum superposition of an appropriate subset of the computational basis of n qubits. This model solves the problem of insufficient capacity of the well known classical associative memory, providing a large improvement in capacity. The distribution proposed by Trugenberger uses the Hamming distance, where the amplitudes have a peak in the stored patterns, which has smaller distance from the entrance. The accuracy of pattern recognition can be adjusted by the parameter b, in other words increasing b increases the probability of recognition. This study examines the genetic diversity of stingless bees Melipona quinquefasciata, obtained from several wild colonies in different localities of the Chapada do Araripe-CE, Chapada da Ibiapaba-CE, city’s Canto do Buriti-PI and Luziânia-GO. DNA sequences were processed by replacing A by 00, G by 01, C by 10 and T by 11. The results show that this probability is very efficient to recognize the patterns of DNA sequences of the stingless bees Melipona quinquefasciata regions 18S and ITS1 partial. The algorithm is not computationally efficient on a classical computer, but is extremely efficient on a quantum computer. It was concluded that this method of recognition of quantum standards is better than the classic method used by Pereira. / A computação quântica é uma área de pesquisa recente que engloba três áreas conhecidas: matemática, física e computação. Com as pesquisas na área de algoritmos quânticos veio a necessidade de entender e expressar tais algoritmos do ponto de vista de programação. Diversas linguagens e modelos para programação quântica de alto nível têm sido propostas nos últimos anos. A Mecânica Quântica (MQ) é um conjunto de regras matemáticas que servem para a construção de teorias físicas, desde a sua criação até os dias de hoje ela tem sido aplicada em diversos ramos. Neste contexto se desenvolveu a Computação Quântica, talvez a mais espetacular proposta de aplicação prática da MQ. A dificuldade de se desenvolver algoritmos quânticos propicia o uso de técnicas alternativas à solução de problemas puramente algorítmica, como por exemplo o aprendizado de máquinas e algoritmos genéticos. Carlo Trugenberger propõe um modelo de memória quântica associativa onde os padrões binários de n bits são armazenados em superposição com um subconjunto apropriado da base computacional de n qubits. Este modelo resolve o problema de escassez de capacidade bem conhecida da memória clássica associativa,provendo uma melhoria grande em capacidade. A distribuição proposta por Trugenberger usa a distância de Hamming, em que as amplitudes tem um pico nos padrões armazenados, que tem menor distância em relação à entrada. A precisão do reconhecimento de padrões pode ser ajustado por um parâmetro b, isto é, aumentando b aumenta a probabilidade de reconhecimento. Este trabalho analisa a diversidade genética das abelhas sem ferrão Melipona quinquefasciata, obtidas de várias colônias silvestres, em localidades distintas da Chapada do Araripe-CE, Chapada da Ibiapaba-CE, cidade do Canto do Buriti-PI e Luziânia-GO. As sequências de DNA foram transformados substituindo A por 00, G por 01, C por 10 e T por 11. Os resultados mostram que essa probabilidade é muito eficiente para reconhecer os padrões de sequências de DNA das abelhas sem ferrão Melipona quinquefasciata das regiões 18S e ITS1 parcial. O algoritmo não é computacionalmente eficiente em um computador clássico, mas será extremamente eficiente em um computador quântico. Concluiu-se que este método de reconhecimento quântico de padrões é melhor que o método clássico utilizado por Pereira.

Orientadores: Reginaldo Palazzo Junior, Marcio de Castro Silva Filho / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Eletrica e de Computação / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-15T16:43:49Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Rocha_AndreaSantosLeiteda_D.pdf: 5117477 bytes, checksum: e8f0c742c67382cad01387d3e62f6705 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010 / Resumo: Um dos desafios em biologia matemática e mostrar a existência de qualquer forma de códigos corretores de erros na estrutura do DNA. Usando os conceitos da teoria de comunicação, propomos um modelo para o sistema de codificacao e decodificaçao do mecanismo de importaçao de proteínas mitocondriais similar a um sistema de comunicacoes digital. Este modelo consiste de um mapeador responsável por transformar os nucleotídeos (A, C, G, T) no alfabeto (0,1, 2, 3) usado pelo codigo sobre a estrutura de anel; um codificador (cádigo BCH); e um modulador (codigo genetico, tRNA e rRNA). O processo de decodificaçao baseia-se em uma analogia entre o processo de decodificacão do algoritmo Berlekamp-Massey para aneis e o complexo TOM (complexo ancorado na membrana externa da mitocondria responsavel por auxiliar na importacçãao das proteínas precursoras). Neste processo temos um demodulador (proteínas Tom 70 e Tom20), um decodificador (o complexo GIP - poro geral de inserção) e o receptor (subcompartimento mitocondrial). Neste trabalho mostramos que as sequencias de DNA (sequencias de direcionamento) são identificadas como palavras-codigo de um código G-linear sobre a extensão de um anel de Galois. Além disso, essas sequências de DNA e suas fitas complementares estão relacionadas matematicamente através dos polinómios primitivos e seus polinómios recíprocos, respectivamente. Um estudo filogenético sugere que a proteína malato desidrogenase da Arabidopsis thaliana encontrada no banco de dados NCBI e uma sequência derivada da proteína malato desidrogenase reproduzida pelo cídigo corretor de erros. Este modelo também reproduz com notível precisão os parâmetros cinéticos baseados em substituicões de aminoíacidos em oligopeptídeos sintéticos. Apresentamos, pela primeira vez, a existência de códigos corretores de erros associados com as sequências de DNA, os quais sugerem fortemente a existência de códigos concatenados no genoma. Os resultados apresentados neste trabalho contribuem para o desenvolvimento de um procedimento sistemático que podera ser empregado em analises de mutacães/polimorfismos com aplicações na engenharia geníetica. / Abstract: One of the puzzling problems in mathematical biology is to show the existence of any form of error-correcting code in the DNA structure. Using information theory considerations we propose a model for the biological coding system similar to that of a digital communication system. This model consists of a mapper (transformations from the set of nucleotides either to the set (0, 1, 2, 3) ring; an encoder (BCH code); and a modulator (genetic code, tRNA and rRNA). The decoding process is based on the Modified Berlekamp-Massey algothm in an analogy with the TOM complex (translocase of the mitochondrial outer membrane). In this process we have a demodulator (Tom 70 and Tom 20 proteins), a decoder (GIP complex) and the receiver (mitochondrion). In this work we show that DNA sequences (targeting sequences) are identified as codewords of a G-linear code over Galois ring extensions. In addition, these DNA sequences and their complementary strands are mathematically related to the primitive polynomials and their reciprocal polynomials, respectively. A phylogenetic study suggest that the MDH protein, Arabidopsis thaliana, found in the NCBI databank is a derived sequence of the MDH protein reproduced by the error correcting code. This model also reproduces with remarkable accuracy kinetic parameters based on amino acid substitutions on synthetic oligopeptides. We show, for the first time, the existence of error-correcting codes associated with DNA sequences, which strongly infer on the existence of nested codes within the genome. The results presented in this work contribute to the development of a systematic procedure which may be employed in the mutations/polymorphisms analysis with applications in genetic engineering. / Doutorado / Telecomunicações e Telemática / Doutor em Engenharia Elétrica

Dans cette thèse, nous nous intéressons au problème de recherche incrémentale de motifs dans des séquences fortement similaires (On-line Pattern Matching on Highly Similar Sequences), issues de technologies de séquençage à haut débit (SHD). Ces séquences ne diffèrent que par de très petites quantités de variations et présentent un niveau de similarité très élevé. Il y a donc un fort besoin d'algorithmes efficaces pour effectuer la recherche rapide de motifs dans de tels ensembles de séquences spécifiques. Nous développons de nouveaux algorithmes pour traiter ce problème. Cette thèse est répartie en cinq parties. Dans la première partie, nous présentons un état de l'art sur les algorithmes les plus connus du problème de recherche de motifs et les index associés. Puis, dans les trois parties suivantes, nous développons trois algorithmes directement dédiés à la recherche incrémentale de motifs dans un ensemble de séquences fortement similaires. Enfin, dans la cinquième partie, nous effectuons une étude expérimentale sur ces algorithmes. Cette étude a montré que nos algorithmes sont efficaces en pratique en terme de temps de calcul / In this thesis, we are interested in the problem of on-line pattern matching in highly similar sequences, On-line Pattern Matching on Highly Similar Sequences, outcoming from Next Generation Sequencing technologies (NGS). These sequences only differ by a very small amount. There is thus a strong need for efficient algorithms for performing fast pattern matching in such specific sets of sequences. We develop new algorithms to process this problem. This thesis is partitioned into five parts. In the first part, we present a state of the art on the most popular algorithms of finding problem and the related indexes. Then, in the three following parts, we develop three algorithms directly dedicated to the on-line search for patterns in a set of highly similar sequences. Finally, in the fifth part, we conduct an experimental study on these algorithms. This study shows that our algorithms are efficient in practice in terms of computation time.

It has been suggested that organismal complexity correlates with the complexity of gene regulation. Transcriptional control of gene expression is mediated by binding of regulatory proteins to cis-acting sequences on the genome. Hence, it is crucial to identify the chromosomal targets of transcription factors (TFs) to delineate transcriptional regulatory networks underlying gene expression programs. The development of ChIP-chip technology has enabled high throughput mapping of TF binding sites across the genome. However, there are many limitations to the technology including the availability of whole genome arrays for complex organisms such human or mouse. To circumvent these limitations, we developed the Sequence Tag Analysis of Genomic Enrichment (STAGE) methodology that is based on extracting short DNA sequences or “tags” from ChIP-enriched DNA. With improvements in sequencing technologies, we applied the recently developed ChIP-Seq technique i.e. ChIP followed by ultra high throughput sequencing, to identify binding sites for the TF E2F4 across the human genome. We identified previously uncharacterized E2F4 binding sites in intergenic regions and found that several microRNAs are potential E2F4 targets. Binding of TFs to their respective chromosomal targets requires access of the TF to its regulatory element, which is strongly influenced by nucleosomal remodeling. In order to understand nucleosome remodeling in response to transcriptional perturbation, we used ultra high throughput sequencing to map nucleosome positions in yeast that were subjected to heat shock or were grown normally. We generated nucleosome remodeling profiles across yeast promoters and found that specific remodeling patterns correlate with specific TFs active during the transcriptional reprogramming. Another important aspect of gene regulation operates at the post-transcriptional level. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are ~22 nucleotide non-coding RNAs that suppress translation or mark mRNAs for degradation. MiRNAs regulate TFs and in turn can be regulated by TFs. We characterized a TF-miRNA network involving the oncofactor Myc and the miRNA miR-22 that suppresses the interferon pathway as primary fibroblasts enter a stage of rapid proliferation. We found that miR-22 suppresses the interferon pathway by inhibiting nuclear translocation of the TF NF-kappaB. Our results show how the oncogenic TF Myc cross-talks with other TF regulatory pathways via a miRNA intermediary. / text

Les molécules classiques du complexe majeur d’histocompatibilité de classe II (CMHII) sont des glycoprotéines de surface spécialisées dans la présentation de peptides, principalement dérivés de pathogènes extracellulaires, aux récepteurs des lymphocytes T CD4+ afin d’initier la réponse immunitaire adaptative. Elles sont encodées, avec celles du CMH de classe I, par les gènes les plus polymorphiques identifiés jusqu’à maintenant, avec plusieurs loci et une grande diversité allélique à chacun d’eux. De plus, le polymorphisme des gènes du CMHII n’est pas limité qu’aux séquences codantes. Il est également observé dans les promoteurs où on a démontré ses effets sur le niveau d’expression des gènes. La variation de la régulation d’un gène est considérée comme un facteur important et pour laquelle des modifications morphologiques, physiologiques et comportementales sont observées chez tous les organismes. Des séquences d’ADN répétées impliquées dans cette régulation ont été identifiées dans les régions non-codantes des génomes. D’un autre côté, la sélection par les pathogènes permettrait l’évolution et le maintien du polymorphisme des gènes du CMH chez les vertébrés. À ce sujet, plusieurs études ont montré l’implication de différents allèles du CMH dans la résistance ou la susceptibilité aux maladies. Cette étude avait pour objectifs de caractériser le polymorphisme du gène MHIIb chez l’omble de fontaine (Salvelinus fontinalis) et de documenter ses effets au niveau de la survie conférée par des allèles et/ou génotypes particuliers lors d’une infection, ainsi que sur la variation du niveau d’expression du gène dans différentes conditions. Dans une première partie, nous avons identifié un total de 6 allèles du gène MHIIb, désignés Safo-DAB*0101 à Safo-DAB*0601, qui montrent une grande similarité avec les séquences codantes provenant de poissons téléostéens et de l’humain. L’analyse des séquences du domaine b1 a permis de détecter l’effet d’une pression sélective positive pour maintenir le polymorphisme dans cette région de la molécule. Quatre de ces allèles ont été testés lors d’une expérience d’infection avec le pathogène Aeromonas salmonicida afin d’évaluer l’effet qu’ils pouvaient avoir sur la survie des poissons. Nous avons trouvé que l’allèle DAB*0101 était significativement associé à la résistance à la furonculose. En plus d’avoir été identifié chez les individus homozygotes pour cet allèle, l’effet a également été remarqué au niveau de la survie les poissons de génotype DAB*0101/*0201. À l’opposé, les facteurs de risque élevé obtenus pour les génotypes DAB*0201/*0301 et DAB*0301/*0401 suggèrent plutôt une association à la susceptibilité. Étant donné la faible fréquence à laquelle l’allèle DAB*0101 a été retrouvé dans la population, le modèle de la sélection dépendante de la fréquence pourrait expliquer l’avantage conféré par ce dernier et souligne l’importance de ce mécanisme pour le maintien du polymorphisme du gène MHIIb chez l’omble de fontaine. Dans une seconde partie, nous avons rapporté la présence d’un minisatellite polymorphique formé d’un motif de 32 nucléotides dans le second intron du gène MHIIb, et pour lequel un nombre exclusif de répétitions du motif a été associé à chaque allèle (69, 27, 20, 40, 19 et 25 répétitions pour les allèles DAB*0101 à DAB*0601 respectivement). L’expression relative de quatre allèles a été évaluée dans des poissons hétérozygotes aux températures de 6 ºC et 18 ºC. Les résultats indiquent que les allèles possédant un long minisatellite montrent une réduction de l’expression du gène d’un facteur 1,67 à 2,56 par rapport aux allèles qui en contiennent un court. De même, des allèles qui incluent des minisatellites de tailles similaires n’affichent pas de différence significative au niveau de l’abondance du transcrit aux deux températures. De plus, l’effet répressif associé aux longs minisatellites est amplifié à la température de 18 ºC dans des poissons de trois génotypes différents. Nous avons finalement observé une augmentation significative par un facteur 2,08 de l’expression totale du gène MHIIb à la température de 6 ºC. Ces résultats appuient l’implication des séquences d’ADN répétées dans la régulation de l’activité transcriptionnelle d’un gène et suggèrent qu’un minisatellite sensible aux différences de températures pourrait être soumis aux forces sélectives et jouer un rôle important dans l’expression de gènes et l’évolution des organismes poïkilothermes. / Classical major histocompatibility complex class II (MHCII) molecules are cell-surface glycoproteins specialized in the presentation of peptides, mainly derived from extracellular pathogens, to the antigen receptors of CD4+ T cells in the adaptive immune system. They are encoded, with those of the MHC class I, by the most polymorphic genes known to date, with multiple loci and high allelic diversity at each one. Moreover, the polymorphism within MHCII genes is not restricted to coding sequences. It has also been observed in promoters where it was shown to affect the expression level of the genes. Variation in gene regulation is believed to be an important factor from which modification in morphology, physiology or behaviour can be observed in all organisms. Repeated DNA sequences with functional roles in this regulation have been identified within the non-coding parts of the genomes. On the other hand, pathogen-driven selection is also believed to be important in the evolution and maintenance of the polymorphism of the MHC genes in vertebrates. Studies have shown the implication of different MHC alleles in disease resistance or susceptibility. In this study, our aims were to characterize the polymorphism of the MHIIb gene in brook charr (Salvelinus fontinalis), to document its effects on the survival conferred by specific alleles and/or genotypes following an infection and on the variation of the expression level of the gene in different environmental conditions. In a first part, we identified a total of 6 MHIIb alleles, designated Safo-DAB*0101 to Safo-DAB*0601, showing a high similarity to coding sequences from teleost fish and human. Analysis of the b1 domain sequences indicates the effect of a positive selection pressure to select polymorphic mutations in that region of the molecule. Four of these alleles were tested in a challenge experiment against the pathogen Aeromonas salmonicida to evaluate their effect on fish survival. We found that one allele, DAB*0101, was significantly associated with resistance to furonculosis. In addition to homozygotes for this allele, its resistance effect was also detected in the heterozygote individuals of the DAB*0101/*0201 genotype. In contrast, other allelic combinations, namely heterozygous genotypes DAB*0201/*0301 and DAB*0301/*0401 were significantly associated with increased susceptibility. Given that its frequency was relatively low in the population, the negative frequency dependant selection hypothesis could explain the advantage associated with the allele DAB*0101 over the other alleles and highlight the importance of this mechanism to sustain variation at the MHC in brook charr. In a second part, we reported the identification of a polymorphic minisatellite formed of a 32 nucleotides motif in the second intron of MHIIb gene, and for which distinctive repeat numbers of the motif were associated to each alleles (69, 27, 20, 40, 19 and 25 repeats for the DAB*0101 to DAB*0601 alleles respectively). Relative expression levels of four alleles were determined in heterozygous fish at temperature of 18 ºC and 6 ºC. Results indicate that alleles carrying the longest minisatellite showed a 1.67 to 2.56-fold reduction in the transcript expression relatively to the shortest one. In contrast, no significant differences were seen in the expression levels between alleles with comparable minisatellite length at both temperatures. Furthermore, the repressive activity associated to the longest minisatellite was more effective at temperature of 18 ºC in fish from three different genotypes. We finally observed a significant 2.08-fold up-regulation of the total MHII transcript amount at 6 ºC. The results support the implication of repeated DNA sequences in the regulation of the gene transcriptional activity and suggest that a temperature-sensitive minisatellite could potentially be submitted to selective forces and therefore play an important role in gene expression and evolution in ectothermic organisms.

Eriophyoid big bud mites are key pests of hazelnuts throughout the world, although little is known of the identity and impact of the species on New Zealand hazelnut crops. The key objectives of this study were to determine the species of mite present on New Zealand crops, explore a method of monitoring mite emergence from overwintering big buds, determine the phenology of mites in relation to tree phenology and weather, and identify the optimum timing for control measures. The presence of both Phytoptus avellanae (Nalepa 1889) (Acari: Phytoptidae) and Cecidophyopsis vermiformis (Nalepa 1889) (Acari: Eriophyidae) was confirmed, the latter species being a new record for New Zealand. Preliminary diagnostic DNA sequences were determined for both species. A sticky band technique was developed to monitor mite emergence from overwintering big buds, and mite emergence was found to occur between early and late spring. Mite emergence and movement occurred when daily temperatures were greater than 15 degrees C and when mean temperatures were greater than 9 degrees C, with mite emergence increasing with temperature. It proved difficult to relate the phenology of hazelnut to mite emergence, however, the development of new buds during mite emergence was a crucial factor in the infestation of new buds. An accumulated heat sum model (DD), started at Julian date 152 and using a lower threshold temperature of 6 degrees C, predicted the onset of emergence on two cultivars and at two sites as occurring at approximately 172 DD. A regression model based on leaf number, bud height, bud width, DD and Julian date provided a more satisfactory prediction of percent accumulated mite emergence. It is recommended both peak mite emergence and the appearance of hazelnut buds should be used to optimise the time to apply control measures. Therefore, a control should be applied before buds measure 0.5 x 0.5 mm (width x height), are enclosed within the axil, and have a rounded tip, or, when 50% accumulated mite emergence has occurred, which ever occurs first. A preliminary field experiment tested the application of sulphur (40 g/10 litres of 800 g/kg No Fungus Super Sulphur) at 2, 50 and 80% accumulated mite emergence. The greatest reduction in mite numbers was achieved with an application at approximately 50% emergence. Considerable variation in mite emergence occurred between years, therefore optimum timing of controls would need to be determined by monitoring mites, new buds and weather conditions each year. Field collection of mites also identified the presence of Typhlodromus doreenae Schicha (Acari: Phytoseiidae) which would warrant further study for inclusion in an integrated mite control programme.

Les molécules classiques du complexe majeur d’histocompatibilité de classe II (CMHII) sont des glycoprotéines de surface spécialisées dans la présentation de peptides, principalement dérivés de pathogènes extracellulaires, aux récepteurs des lymphocytes T CD4+ afin d’initier la réponse immunitaire adaptative. Elles sont encodées, avec celles du CMH de classe I, par les gènes les plus polymorphiques identifiés jusqu’à maintenant, avec plusieurs loci et une grande diversité allélique à chacun d’eux. De plus, le polymorphisme des gènes du CMHII n’est pas limité qu’aux séquences codantes. Il est également observé dans les promoteurs où on a démontré ses effets sur le niveau d’expression des gènes. La variation de la régulation d’un gène est considérée comme un facteur important et pour laquelle des modifications morphologiques, physiologiques et comportementales sont observées chez tous les organismes. Des séquences d’ADN répétées impliquées dans cette régulation ont été identifiées dans les régions non-codantes des génomes. D’un autre côté, la sélection par les pathogènes permettrait l’évolution et le maintien du polymorphisme des gènes du CMH chez les vertébrés. À ce sujet, plusieurs études ont montré l’implication de différents allèles du CMH dans la résistance ou la susceptibilité aux maladies. Cette étude avait pour objectifs de caractériser le polymorphisme du gène MHIIb chez l’omble de fontaine (Salvelinus fontinalis) et de documenter ses effets au niveau de la survie conférée par des allèles et/ou génotypes particuliers lors d’une infection, ainsi que sur la variation du niveau d’expression du gène dans différentes conditions. Dans une première partie, nous avons identifié un total de 6 allèles du gène MHIIb, désignés Safo-DAB*0101 à Safo-DAB*0601, qui montrent une grande similarité avec les séquences codantes provenant de poissons téléostéens et de l’humain. L’analyse des séquences du domaine b1 a permis de détecter l’effet d’une pression sélective positive pour maintenir le polymorphisme dans cette région de la molécule. Quatre de ces allèles ont été testés lors d’une expérience d’infection avec le pathogène Aeromonas salmonicida afin d’évaluer l’effet qu’ils pouvaient avoir sur la survie des poissons. Nous avons trouvé que l’allèle DAB*0101 était significativement associé à la résistance à la furonculose. En plus d’avoir été identifié chez les individus homozygotes pour cet allèle, l’effet a également été remarqué au niveau de la survie les poissons de génotype DAB*0101/*0201. À l’opposé, les facteurs de risque élevé obtenus pour les génotypes DAB*0201/*0301 et DAB*0301/*0401 suggèrent plutôt une association à la susceptibilité. Étant donné la faible fréquence à laquelle l’allèle DAB*0101 a été retrouvé dans la population, le modèle de la sélection dépendante de la fréquence pourrait expliquer l’avantage conféré par ce dernier et souligne l’importance de ce mécanisme pour le maintien du polymorphisme du gène MHIIb chez l’omble de fontaine. Dans une seconde partie, nous avons rapporté la présence d’un minisatellite polymorphique formé d’un motif de 32 nucléotides dans le second intron du gène MHIIb, et pour lequel un nombre exclusif de répétitions du motif a été associé à chaque allèle (69, 27, 20, 40, 19 et 25 répétitions pour les allèles DAB*0101 à DAB*0601 respectivement). L’expression relative de quatre allèles a été évaluée dans des poissons hétérozygotes aux températures de 6 ºC et 18 ºC. Les résultats indiquent que les allèles possédant un long minisatellite montrent une réduction de l’expression du gène d’un facteur 1,67 à 2,56 par rapport aux allèles qui en contiennent un court. De même, des allèles qui incluent des minisatellites de tailles similaires n’affichent pas de différence significative au niveau de l’abondance du transcrit aux deux températures. De plus, l’effet répressif associé aux longs minisatellites est amplifié à la température de 18 ºC dans des poissons de trois génotypes différents. Nous avons finalement observé une augmentation significative par un facteur 2,08 de l’expression totale du gène MHIIb à la température de 6 ºC. Ces résultats appuient l’implication des séquences d’ADN répétées dans la régulation de l’activité transcriptionnelle d’un gène et suggèrent qu’un minisatellite sensible aux différences de températures pourrait être soumis aux forces sélectives et jouer un rôle important dans l’expression de gènes et l’évolution des organismes poïkilothermes. / Classical major histocompatibility complex class II (MHCII) molecules are cell-surface glycoproteins specialized in the presentation of peptides, mainly derived from extracellular pathogens, to the antigen receptors of CD4+ T cells in the adaptive immune system. They are encoded, with those of the MHC class I, by the most polymorphic genes known to date, with multiple loci and high allelic diversity at each one. Moreover, the polymorphism within MHCII genes is not restricted to coding sequences. It has also been observed in promoters where it was shown to affect the expression level of the genes. Variation in gene regulation is believed to be an important factor from which modification in morphology, physiology or behaviour can be observed in all organisms. Repeated DNA sequences with functional roles in this regulation have been identified within the non-coding parts of the genomes. On the other hand, pathogen-driven selection is also believed to be important in the evolution and maintenance of the polymorphism of the MHC genes in vertebrates. Studies have shown the implication of different MHC alleles in disease resistance or susceptibility. In this study, our aims were to characterize the polymorphism of the MHIIb gene in brook charr (Salvelinus fontinalis), to document its effects on the survival conferred by specific alleles and/or genotypes following an infection and on the variation of the expression level of the gene in different environmental conditions. In a first part, we identified a total of 6 MHIIb alleles, designated Safo-DAB*0101 to Safo-DAB*0601, showing a high similarity to coding sequences from teleost fish and human. Analysis of the b1 domain sequences indicates the effect of a positive selection pressure to select polymorphic mutations in that region of the molecule. Four of these alleles were tested in a challenge experiment against the pathogen Aeromonas salmonicida to evaluate their effect on fish survival. We found that one allele, DAB*0101, was significantly associated with resistance to furonculosis. In addition to homozygotes for this allele, its resistance effect was also detected in the heterozygote individuals of the DAB*0101/*0201 genotype. In contrast, other allelic combinations, namely heterozygous genotypes DAB*0201/*0301 and DAB*0301/*0401 were significantly associated with increased susceptibility. Given that its frequency was relatively low in the population, the negative frequency dependant selection hypothesis could explain the advantage associated with the allele DAB*0101 over the other alleles and highlight the importance of this mechanism to sustain variation at the MHC in brook charr. In a second part, we reported the identification of a polymorphic minisatellite formed of a 32 nucleotides motif in the second intron of MHIIb gene, and for which distinctive repeat numbers of the motif were associated to each alleles (69, 27, 20, 40, 19 and 25 repeats for the DAB*0101 to DAB*0601 alleles respectively). Relative expression levels of four alleles were determined in heterozygous fish at temperature of 18 ºC and 6 ºC. Results indicate that alleles carrying the longest minisatellite showed a 1.67 to 2.56-fold reduction in the transcript expression relatively to the shortest one. In contrast, no significant differences were seen in the expression levels between alleles with comparable minisatellite length at both temperatures. Furthermore, the repressive activity associated to the longest minisatellite was more effective at temperature of 18 ºC in fish from three different genotypes. We finally observed a significant 2.08-fold up-regulation of the total MHII transcript amount at 6 ºC. The results support the implication of repeated DNA sequences in the regulation of the gene transcriptional activity and suggest that a temperature-sensitive minisatellite could potentially be submitted to selective forces and therefore play an important role in gene expression and evolution in ectothermic organisms.

Human complex diseases, like Diabetes and Cancer, affect many people worldwide today. Despite existing knowledge, many of these diseases are still not preventable. Complex diseases are known to be caused by a combination of genetic factors, as well as environmental and life style factors. The scope of this investigation covered the genomics of Type 1 Diabetes (T1D). There are 49 human genomic regions that are known to carry markers (disease-associated single nucleotide mutations) for T1D, and these were extensively studied in this research. The aim was to find out in how far this disease may be caused by problems in gene regulation rather than in gene coding. For this, the genetic factors associated with T1D, including the single point mutations and susceptibility regions, were characterised on the basis of their genomic attributes. Furthermore, mutations that occur in binding sites for transcription factors were analysed for change in the conspicuousness of their binding region, caused by allele substitution. This is called SNP (Single nucleotide polymorphism) sensitivity. From this study, it was found that the markers for T1D are mostly non-coding SNPs that occur in introns and non-coding gene transcripts, these are structures known to be involved in gene regulatory activity. It was also discovered that the T1D susceptibility regions contain an abundance of intronic, non-coding transcript and regulatory nucleotides, and that they can be split into three distinct groups on the basis of their structural and functional genomic contents. Finally, using an algorithm designed for this study, thirty-seven SNPs that change the representation of their surrounding region were identified. These regulatory mutations are non-associated T1D-SNPs that are mostly characterised by Cytosine to Thymine (C-T) transition mutations. They were found to be closer in average distance to the disease-associated SNPs than other SNPs in binding sites, and also to occur frequently in the binding motifs for the USF (Upstream stimulatory factor) protein family which is linked to problems in Type 2 diabetes.

Cette thèse s'intéresse aux liens entre l'évolution de la coopération et la sélection de second ordre. Dans une première partie, nous montrons comment des organismes digitaux adaptent leurs génomes pour encoder les gènes liées à la coopération d'une manière plus contrainte (suppression d'évolvabilité), notamment à l'aide d'opérons et d'overlaps impliquant aussi des gènes essentiels. Dans une deuxième partie, nous testons expérimentalement cette vision des overlaps de gènes comme "contrainte évolutive" grâce à des outils d'algorithmique et de biologie synthétique que nous avons développés. Dans une troisième partie, nous utilisons des simulations par agents pour montrer comment une forme de division du travail peut être interprétée comme un système coopératif à la lumière de la théorie évolutive moderne. Dans une dernière partie, nous montrons que la dispersion spatiale des allèles coopératives obtenue par des phénomènes de "genetic hitchiking" joue un rôle important dans l'évolution de la coopération, quand bien même ce mécanisme de dispersion s'applique aussi à des allèles non coopératives, grâce à la "relatedness" (aux loci codant pour la coopération) crée par l'invasion locale de mutations bénéfiques (à des loci non liés à la coopération) et par l'équilibre complexe entre ces mutations bénéfiques et la robustesse mutationnelle. L'ensemble de ces résultats appelle à une prise en compte plus importante des pressions sélectives de second ordre dans l'étude de l'évolution sociale, et au développement de modèles plus réalistes qui permettraient d'intégrer de telles forces évolutives. Nous insistons également sur l'importance du paysage mutationnel dans l'étude des populations bactériennes, et montrons le potentiel croissant de la biologie synthétique comme outil d'étude de ce paysage et de l'évolution microbienne en général. / In the first part, I show how digital organisms adapt their genomes to encode cooperation-related genes in a more constrained way (evolvability suppression), especially using operons and overlaps also involving essential genes. In the second part, we experimentally test this view of gene overlaps as an evolutionary constraint, using both algorithmic and synthetic biology tools that we have developed. In the third part, I use agent-based simulations to show how a form of division of labour can be interpreted as a cooperative system in the light of modern evolutionary theory. In the final part, I show that the patterns of dispersal of cooperative alleles due to hitchhiking phenomena play an important role in the evolution of cooperation. The last result holds even though the hitchhiking mechanisms also applies to non-cooperative alleles, thanks to the relatedness (at cooperation-related loci) created by the local invasion of beneficial mutations (at loci not related to cooperation). The beneficial mutations form a complex and interesting equilibrium with mutational robustness, which I investigate using in silico evolution. On the whole, these results call for a more careful consideration of the second-order selection pressures in the study of social evolution, and show the necessity for more realistic models allowing to integrate such evolutionary forces. My thesis research specifically highlights the importance of the mutational landscape in the study of microbial populations and shows the increasing potential of synthetic biology as a tool to study such landscape and microbial evolution in general.

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