International sports law with emphasis on issue of doping in sports Key words: international sports law, doping, WADA The aim of this thesis is to describe environment and character of sports law on the one hand and to thoroughly analyse the doping issue in sports as one of highly topical fields of sports law on the other hand. After a general introduction, the second chapter describes problems of definition of the term 'sports' itself and subsequently the relation between sports and law as two distinct phenomena with norms of different nature. Terminological suitability of usage of term 'sports law' commonly used for relation between sports and law is also examined. The third chapter is already focused on international sports, since the international character is a typical attribute of sports law. Crucial characteristics determining the international character of sports law, as the pyramid structure of sports organizations, are explained. The following chapter concerns in more detail international organizations and treaties in the field of sports and their character with respect to public international law. Emphasized is the distinction between governmental and non-governmental international organizations. The thesis does not forget to point out case law, which has a crucial significance for establishment...

Title: Doping and management in elite sport Objectives: The main aim of this diploma thesis is to find the opinions of the cardinal representatives from professional sport, i.e. top sports officials and elite sportsmans, to doping, who may have the different attitudes to this issue from their position and roles. Methods: In this diploma thesis were used two methods for collection of data. Specifically, the method of questionnaires and semi-structured interview method. Mixed type of research was selected due to deeper into the issue. In the diploma thesis was also used the method of analysis or comparison, mostly to gather sufficient information for the development of theoretical foundations of work. Results: Results of mixed research are interpreted in the research of this diploma thesis. The results of this study found the opinion of the cardinal representatives from professional sport, sports managers and the elite sportsmans, to doping. The results can serve as a basis for future research in this area, for example, when comparing the sports company to the general public, as to whether individuals who show more willingness in the use of doping, they have a different attitude to their body and health than individuals who do not want to show this willingness. Keywords: doping, management, sports...

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Chemistry / Viktor Chikan / Doping quantum dots to increase conductivity is a crucial step towards being able to fabricate a new generation of electronic devices built on the “bottom-up” platform that are smaller and more efficient than currently available. Indium, tin, and gallium have been used to dope CdSe in both the bulk and thin film regimes and introduce n-type electron donation to the conduction band. CdSe quantum dots have been successfully doped with indium, tin, and gallium using the Li4[Cd10Se4(SPh16)] single source precursor combined with metal chloride compounds. Doping CdSe quantum dots is shown to effect particle growth dynamics in the “heterogeneous growth regime.” Doping with indium, tin, and gallium introduce donor levels 280, 100, and 50 meV below the conduction band minimum, respectively. Thin films of indium and tin doped quantum dots show improved conductivity over films of undoped quantum dots. Transient Absorption spectroscopy indicates that indium doping introduces a new electron energy level in the conduction band that results in a 70 meV blue shift in the 1Se absorption bleach position. Novel characterization methods such as in-situ fluorescence growth monitoring, single quantum dot EDS acquisition, static and time-resolved temperature dependant fluorescence spectroscopy were developed in the course of this work as well. These results show that doping CdSe quantum dots with indium, tin, and gallium has not only been successful but has introduced new electronic properties to the quantum dots that make them superior to traditional CdSe quantum dots.

Thesis advisor: Zhifeng Ren / Thermoelectrics, as one promising approach for solid-state energy conversion between heat and electricity, is becoming increasingly important within the last a couple of decades as the availability and negative environmental impact of fossil fuels draw increasing attention. Therefore, various thermoelectric materials in a wide working temperature range from room temperature to 1000 degrees Celsius for power generation or below zero for cooling applications have been intensively studied. In general, the efficiency of thermoelectric devices relies on the dimensionless figure-of-merit (ZT) of the material, defined as ZT=(S<super>2</sup>&sigma;)T/&kappa;, where S is the Seebeck coefficient, [sigma] the electrical conductivity, [kappa] the thermal conductivity (sum of the electronic part, the lattice part, and the bipolar contribution at high temperature region), and T the absolute temperature during operation. Techniques to measure those individual parameters will be discussed in the 2nd chapter while the 1st chapter mainly covers the fundamental theory of thermoelectrics. Recently, the idea of using various nanostructured materials to further improve the ZT of conventional thermoelectric materials has led to a renewed interest. Among these types of nanostructured materials, nanocomposites which mainly denote for the nano-grained bulk materials or materials with nano-sized inclusions are the major focus of our study. For nanocomposites, the enhancement in ZT mainly comes from the low lattice thermal conductivity due to the suppressed phonon transport by those interfaces or structure features in the nanometer scale without deteriorating the electron transport. In the last few years, we have successfully demonstrated in several materials systems (Bismuth Telluride, Skutterudites, Silicon Germanium) that ball milling followed by hot pressing is an effective way for preparing large quantities of those nanocomposite thermoelectric materials with high ZT values in the bulk form. Therefore, in the 3rd part of this thesis, I will talk about how I applied the same technique to the Thalllium (Tl) doped Lead Telluride (PbTe) which was reported for an improved Seebeck coefficient due to the creation of resonant states near the Fermi level, leading to a high ZT of about 1.5 at around 500 degrees Celsius. I showed that comparing with conventional tedious, energy consuming melting method, our fabrication process could produce such material with competing thermoelectric performance, but much simpler and more energy effective. Potential problems and perspectives for the future study are also discussed. The 4th chapter of my thesis deals with the challenge that in addition to those nanostructuring routes that mainly reduce the thermal conductivity to improve the performance, strategies to enhance the power factor (enhancing [sigma] or S or both) are also essential for the next generation of thermoelectric materials. In this part, modulation-doping which has been widely used in thin film semiconductor industry was studied in 3-D bulk thermoelectric nanocomposites to enhance the carrier mobility and therefore the electrical conductivity [sigma]. We proved in our study that by proper materials design, an improved power factor and a reduced thermal conductivity could be simultaneously obtained in the n-type SiGe nanocomposite material, which in turn gives an about 30% enhancement in the final ZT value. In order to further improve the materials performance or even apply this strategy to other materials systems, I also provided discussions at the end of chapter. In the last chapter, the structural and transport properties of a new thermoelectric compound Cu₂Se was studied which was originally regarded as a superionic conductor. The [beta]-phase of such material possesses a natural superlattice-like structure, therefore resulting in a low lattice thermal conductivity of 0.4-0.5 Wm^-1K^-1 and a high peak ZT value of ~1.6 at around 700 degrees Celsius. I also studied the phase transition behavior between the cubic [beta]-phase and the tetragonal [alpha]-phase of such material from the discontinuity of transport property curves and the change in crystal structure. In addition, I also talk about the abnormal decrease in specific heat with increasing temperature that I observed in the as-prepared Cu₂Se samples. I suggest this material is of general interest to a broad range of researchers in Physics, Chemistry, and Materials Science. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2012. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Physics.

78 14 ABSTRACT The thesis discusses the issue of criminal liability in the sport with a focus on criminal liability of sport's injuries, doping and corruption. After a general introduction to the definition of sport and sport's law, the author focuses on the relationship between sport and law, especially criminal law. Subsequently, the thesis is devoted to sport's injuries from several points of view. At first, attention is paid to the connection between the current Czech Criminal Code and liability for sport's injuries, especially with regard to the mandatory features of the offense. In addition, it is briefly discussed the applicable circumstances excluding criminal liability. These circumstances are also devoted to next chapter which is dealing with the basic doctrinal theories formed abroad. The author attempts to bring his opinion on the possible application of these theories in Czech law. The following chapter focuses on the analysis of all relevant Czech criminal case law with an addition of one crucial civil judicial decision on the field of liability for sport's injuries. The thesis includes also the chapter with foreign comparison where the author describes on the examples of Germany, Austria, Poland, France and England how is dealt with these issue in other relevant countries along with the most...

Neste trabalho estudamos as propriedades eletrônicas de um sistema com dopagem planar ou delta. Resolvemos as equações de Schrodinger e Poisson autoconsistentemente na aproximação de Hatree para diferentes situações de interesse com ou sem campos magnéticos ou elétricos externos. O método empregado para resolvermos a equação de Schrodinger e baseado na técnica do split operator. Obtemos o potencial efetivo, os níveis de energia e a densidade eletrônica em função da temperatura, densidade e largura de difusão dos doadores. Para um campo magnético uniforme aplicado perpendicularmente ao plano de doadores mostramos que não ocorre nenhuma alteração na estrutura das sub-bandas eletrônicas no intervalo entre 0 e 20T. Para um campo magnético uniforme aplicado paralelamente ao plano de doadores os níveis eletrônicos são deslocados para energias mais elevadas provocando uma diminuição na população dos níveis mais excitados e um aumento significativo na massa efetiva do elétron. Para sistemas na presença de um campo elétrico externo calculamos a energia das sub-bandas eletrônicas, a ocupação, a polarização e a capacitância em função da voltagem externa, da densidade e da posição das impurezas doadoras. Nossos resultados para capacitância estão qualitativamente em acordo com recentes resultados experimentais. / In this work we have studied the electronic proprieties of a system with planar doping or &#948-doping. We have solved the Schrodinger and Poisson equations self-consistently in the Hatree approximation for several conditions with or without external magnetic or electric fields. In order to solve Schrodinger equation we have employed the split operator technique. The effective potential, the energy levels and the electronic density was calculated as a function of temperature, donor density and donor diffusion width. With external magnetic field applied perpendicular to the donors plane it is shown that the sub-bands energies are not altered for fields in the range of 0 to 20T. With magnetic fields applied parallel to the donors plane we have observed that the energy levels are shifted to higher energies and a depopulation of the excited levels occur, also an enhancement of the electron effective mass is found. With an electric field applied to the system we have calculated the sub-bands energy levels, the electron concentration, the polarization, and the capacitance as a function of the gate voltage, donor density and the position of the donor plane. Our results for the capacitance agree qualitatively quite well with recent experimental data.

Neste trabalho o carbono comercial Vulcan XC72 foi modificado com heteroátomos de N, S e P por meio do tratamento térmico a 800 °C com ureia, ácido sulfúrico e ácido fosfórico, respectivamente. Os carbonos modificados foram utilizados na preparação de eletrocatalisadores Pt/C e PtRu/C e aplicados na oxidação eletroquímica do metanol. Os materiais obtidos foram caracterizados por espectroscopia dispersiva de raios X, difração de raios X, espectroscopia Raman, microscopia eletrônica de transmissão e voltametria cíclica. A oxidação eletroquímica do metanol foi estudada por voltametria cíclica e cronoamperometria. Os espectros Raman mostraram que as razões de intensidades das bandas D e G dos suportes de carbono modificados com heteroátomos foram maiores que a observada para o carbono Vulcan XC72 sugerindo a incorporação na estrutura do carbono. As análises por difração de raios X mostraram para todos os eletrocatalisadores Pt/C a estrutura cúbica de face centrada (cfc) e as micrografias eletrônicas de transmissão que todos materiais apresentaram tamanhos de partícula na faixa 4-5 nm. Para os eletrocatalisadores PtRu/C preparados com os suportes de carbono modificados com N e S, os difratogramas de raios-X apresentaram apenas a fase Pt (cfc) não havendo deslocamento dos picos desta fase. Nestes materiais os picos referentes a fases de Ru não foram identificados sugerindo que o Ru apresenta-se como uma fase amorfa. Por outro lado, para o material modificado com P, observou-se um deslocamento dos picos da fase Pt(cfc) para ângulos maiores, sugerindo a formação de liga Pt-Ru e também foi observado a presença da fase Ru hexagonal compacta. Os eletrocatalisadores Pt/C e PtRu/C preparados com os suportes contendo heteroátomos apresentaram uma melhora significativa na atividade eletrocatalítica quando comparados aos materiais preparados com o suporte não modificado. A melhora na atividade pode estar relacionada a modificações na interação metal-suporte, bem como, as diferentes espécies Pt e Ru presentes no caso do eletrocatalisador PtRu/C preparado utilizando o suporte modificado com P. / In this work, commercial Vulcan XC72 carbon was modified with heteroatoms like N, S and P by thermal treatment at 800 ° C in the presence of urea, sulfuric acid and phosphoric acid, respectively. The modified carbons were used in the preparation of Pt/C and PtRu/C electrocatalysts and tested for methanol electro-oxidation. The materials were characterized by dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy and cyclic voltammetry. The methanol electro-oxidation was studied by cyclic voltammetry and chronoamperometry. The Raman spectra showed that the intensity ratios of D- and G- bands of the carbon supports modified with heteroatoms were higher than that observed for Vulcan XC72 carbon suggesting the incorporation in the structure. X-ray diffraction analysis showed that Pt/C electrocatalysts have face-centered cubic structure (fcc) and transmission electron micrographs presented particle sizes in the range 4-5 nm. For PtRu/C electrocatalysts made with carbon supports modified with N and S, the X-ray diffraction patterns showed only the presence of Pt(fcc) phase with no shift of the Pt peaks. Peaks of Ru crystalline phases were not identified suggesting that in these materials Ru appears as an amorphous phase. On the other hand, for PtRu/C electrocatalyst prepared with carbon support modified with P, there was a shift of Pt(fcc) peaks to higher angles suggesting Pt-Ru alloy formation and the presence of Ru hexagonal close-packed phase was also observed. Pt/C and PtRu/C electrocatalysts prepared with carbon support modified with heteroatoms showed a significant improvement of electrocatalytic activity when compared to the unmodified material. The improvement in electrocatalytic activity can be related to changes in the metal-support interaction, as well as to the different Pt and Ru species for PtRu/C electrocatalyst prepared with carbon support modified with P.

Filmes finos de TiO2 e N:TiO2, e multicamadas TiO2/N:TiO2 foram crescidos sobre substratos de aço AISI 316 e Si(100), por meio da técnica de deposição química de organometálicos em fase vapor (MOCVD). Foram produzidos filmes com diferentes espessuras, nas temperaturas de 400 e 500°C. Os filmes foram caracterizados utilizando-se técnicas de difração de raios X (DRX), espectroscopia de fotoelétrons excitados por raios x (XPS) e microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV). A resistência à corrosão foi avaliada por meio de testes de polarização potenciodinâmica em eletrólito 3,5%p NaCl. Filmes não dopados, crescidos a 400°C, apresentaram TiO2 anatase, enquanto que os crescidos a 500°C apresentaram a fase rutilo, além de anatase. Nos filmes dopados com nitrogênio (7,29 e 8,29 at% a 400 e 500°C, respectivamente), em ambas as temperaturas, houve a formação de TiO2 anatase, bem como de fases contendo nitrogênio. Os filmes de TiO2 crescidos a 400°C ofereceram melhor proteção contra a corrosão que os crescidos a 500°C. Filmes crescidos a 500°C apresentaram estrutura colunar, que representa alto nível de porosidade, enquanto que os filmes crescidos a 400°C apresentaram estrutura mais densa. A dopagem não foi eficiente para proteger o substrato contra corrosão, provavelmente devido à formação das fases contendo nitrogênio. Os resultados para os testes com filmes compostos por multicamadas sugerem que aqueles com mais interfaces apresentam melhor resistência à corrosão. O processo de corrosão das amostras se inicia na superfície do filme, que está em contato com o meio agressivo, originando pites, que permitem ao meio corrosivo acessar o substrato metálico. O metal é atacado e dissolvido sob o filme, e resulta na delaminação do filme. / TiO2 and N-doped TiO2 (N:TiO2) thin films, and TiO2/N:TiO2 multilayered films were grown on AISI 316 steel substrates, and Si (100) by using metallorganic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) technique. The growth of the films was carried out at 400 and 500°C, and films with different thicknesses and structures were obtained. Titanium dioxide films were produced by using only titanium isopropoxide IV as both titanium and oxygen sources. In order to obtain N:TiO2 films, NH3 was also added to the system. The films were characterized by using X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) The corrosion resistance was evaluated by potentiodynamic polarization tests in a 3.5wt% NaCl electrolyte. TiO2 undoped films, grown at 400°C, presented anatase, while those grown at 500°C showed the rutile phase, besides anatase. For nitrogendoped films (7.29 and 8.29 at% at 400 and 500°C, respectively), at both temperatures, TiO2 anatase was formed, as well as nitrogen-containing phases. TiO2 films grown at 400°C provided better protection against corrosion than those grown at 500°C. Films grown at 500°C showed a columnar structure, which represents a high level of porosity, while the films grown at 400°C presented a denser structure. Doping was not efficient to protect the substrate against corrosion, probably due to the formation of nitrogen containing phases. The corrosion results for tests with multilayered films suggest that those with more interfaces present better resistance to corrosion. The corrosion of the samples starts at the surface of the films, which is in contact with the aggressive medium, causing pitting in this film, which allows the corrosive medium to reach the metallic substrate. The metal is attacked and dissolved under the film, and results in film delamination.

Neste trabalho foram desenvolvidas tecnologias e novos processos de fabricação de microdispositivos analíticos visando o acoplamento desta plataforma microfluídica com a detecção condutométrica sem contato (C4D). Uma segunda etapa do trabalho concentrou esforços em melhorar os níveis de detectabilidade da C4D. Para tanto foi proposto um processo rápido e robusto para selagem de canais de vidro para produção de microdispositivos analíticos para eletroforese. Os canais de vidro foram fabricados por processo fotolitográfico e corrosão química em via úmida. Os microcanais obtidos foram selados contra outra lâmina de vidro previamente recoberta por uma membrana polimérica (PDMS) de 50 &micro;m de espessura. Esta mesma membrana, além de promover a junção das placas de vidro, promoveu também o isolamento elétrico entre a solução no interior do canal microfluídico (de uma lâmina de vidro) e os eletrodos metálicos presentes no substrato de vidro oposto. Assim, foi possível acoplar a detecção condutométrica sem contato (C4D) com a plataforma eletroforética proposta. O desempenho analítico desta foi avaliado usando detecção por fluorescência induzida a laser (LIF) e C4D. Eficiência de aproximadamente 47000 pratos/m foi alcançada com boa repetibilidade chip-a-chip. Fluxo eletrosmótico (EOF) estável foi observado apesar da presença do material polimérico compondo parte da parede interna do canal. Com a metodologia proposta, um chip pode ser fabricado em menos de 120 min, já incluindo as etapas de gravação por fotolitografia, corrosão e selagem. Quando comparada à selagem térmica, além do ganho de tempo e facilidade no manuseio dos substratos, o método proposto não necessita de altas temperaturas e os dispositivos obtidos apresentam repetibilidade satisfatória para análises em diferentes dias e em diferentes microchips. A plataforma analítica desenvolvida foi utilizada em um estudo cinético no qual foi possível determinar os parâmetros cinéticos (Vmax = 12,64 mmol L-1 min-1 e KM = 23,8 mmol L-1) da reação de decomposição de ureia catalisada pela enzima urease. Na segunda etapa do trabalho, foi proposta a alteração de um parâmetro físico, a constante dielétrica, da membrana de PDMS usada como isolante de modo a obter um acoplamento capacitivo mais eficiente e como conseqüência uma melhor resposta no detector. Uma discussão teórica fez-se necessária a respeito do princípio de funcionamento da C4D. Os resultados obtidos com experimentos, nos quais a membrana de PDMS foi dopada com dióxido de titânio (TiO2), mostraram que a discussão sobre o funcionamento deste detector está de acordo com as considerações teóricas apresentadas neste trabalho, onde o sinal analítico é proporcional à capacitância e esta é proporcional à constante dielétrica na cela de detecção. Com esta alternativa foi possível reduzir os limites de detecção em experimentos de análise em fluxo de 385,5 para 14,7 &micro;mol L-1 após adição de 50% em massa de TiO2 na membrana de PDMS. / In this thesis were presented technologies developed aiming new manufacturing processes for analytical microdevices by coupling of this microfluidic platform with capacitively coupled contactless conductivity detection (C4D). In a second stage of the work, we focused on improving the levels of detectability of C4D. We proposed a fast and robust process for sealing glass channels to produce analytical microdevices for electrophoresis. The glass channels were fabricated by photolithographic process and chemical wet etching. The obtained microchannels were sealed against another glass plate, which was previously coated with a 50-&micro;m-thick membrane of poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS). The purpose of this membrane, besides promoting the bonding of the two glass plates, was to act as an electrical insulator between the solution within the microfluidic channel on the top glass plate and the metal electrode present on the bottom glass chip. Thus it was possible to couple the contactless conductivity detection (C4D) with the electrophoretic platform proposed. The analytical performance was evaluated using both laser induced fluorescence (LIF) detection and C4D. Efficiency of about 47,000 plates/m was achieved with good chip-to-chip repeatability. Electroosmotic flow (EOF) was observed and stable despite the presence of polymer composing part of the inner wall of the channel. With the proposed methodology, a chip can be manufactured at less than 120 min, including the patterning step by photolithography, chemical etching, and sealing (bonding) step. When compared to the heat sealing procedure, in addition to time savings, and ease of handling of the substrates, the method does not require high temperatures, and the devices obtained show satisfactory repeatability analysis on different days and different microchips. The proposed analytical platform was used in a kinetic study in which it was possible to determine the kinetic parameters (Vmax = 12.64 mmol L-1 min-1 and KM = 23.8 mmol L-1) for the decomposition of urea catalyzed by the enzyme urease. In the second part of this thesis, it was proposed to change a physical parameter, the dielectric constant of the PDMS membrane used as an insulator, to achieve a more efficient capacitive coupling and consequently a better response in the detector. A theoretical discussion was required regarding the operating principle of C4D. The results obtained from experiments in which the PDMS membrane was doped with titanium dioxide (TiO2) showed that the discussion on the functioning of this detector is in agreement with the theoretical considerations presented in this work. The analytical signal was proportional to the capacitance and this was proportional to the dielectric constant in the detection cell. With this alternative we could reduce the detection limits in flow analysis system experiments from 385.5 to 14.7 &micro;mol L-1 after addition of 50% wt of TiO2 in the PDMS membrane.

Neste trabalho, realizamos um estudo da dependência da condutividade elétrica dc ( ), com a dopagem (tempo de exposição ao ácido clorídrico de (0 a 6 horas), temperatura (80 T 300K) e campo elétrico (E) em filmes auto-sustentáveis de polianilina. As amostras foram metalizadas com ouro em ambas as faces e as medidas realizadas utilizando-se o método de duas pontas. O pó utilizado nos filmes foi sintetizado quimicamente através da mistura da anilina com ácido clorídrico, a qual foi adicionada uma segunda solução de peroxidissulfato de amônio e que após desdopagem com hidróxido de amônio, obteve-se a base esmeraldina, esse produto foi dissolvido em N-Metil Pirrolidona possibilitando a obtenção dos filmes pelo método casting e posteriormente dopados por imersão em solução de ácido clorídrico em níveis desejados. Para um curto tempo de exposição ao ácido clorídico (menos de 30 minutos) observamos um rápido crescimento da condutividade com o aumento da dopagem. Para tempos mais longos a condutividade tende a saturação. Da análise da condutividade em função da temperatura obtivemos que ~ exp(T(-1/4)) consistente com o modelo de \"Saltos de Alcance Variável\" proposto por Mott. Nesse modelo a condução ocorre através do tunelamento assistido por fônons entre estados eletrônicos localizados. Se os estados são muito localizados um elétron só poderá saltar para o estado mais próximo, e assim a condutividade será proporcional ao fator de Boltzmann. Se a localização é menos intensa , um elétron pode saltar para sítios onde a energia de ativação é menor mas que estão situados mais distantes do que os primeiros vizinhos, ou seja, a condução ocorrerá por saltos com alcance variável. / In this work, we accomplished a study of the dependence of the dc electrical conductivity ( ), with the doping level (time of immersion of the film into the hydrochloric acid - 0 t 6 hours), temperature (80 T 300K) and electric field (E) in polyaniline thin films. The electric contacts to the samples were obtained using gold deposited in both faces and the measurements have been done using the method of two points. The powder used in the films was synthesized chemically through the mixture of the aniline with hydrochloric acid. A second solution of ammonium peroxidissulfate has been added to the mixture and after that the same has been treated with ammonium hydroxide. The emeraldine base so obtained has been dissolved in N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidinone to be used to produce the films by the method of casting. Later on the films have been doped by imersion with hydrochloric acid in wanted levels. For a short time of immersion into hydrochloric acid (less than 30 minutes) we observed a fast growth of the conductivity with the increase of the doping level. For longer times the conductivity tends to the saturation. Analyzing the conductivity as a function of temperature we obtained that ~ exp (T(-1/4)) consistent with the model of Variable Range Hopping proposed by Mott. In that model the conduction happens through the tunneling of carriers assisted by phonons between localized electronic states. If the localization is very strong, the carrier can only jump to the nearest state, and the conductivity will be proportional to the Boltzmann factor. If the location is less strong, a carrier can jump to sites for which the activation energy is smaller but which can reside further way. As a result we have conductivity with variable range hopping.