The Environmental Radioactivity Laboratory (ERL) at iThemba LABS undertakes experimental work using a high purity germanium (HPGe) detector for laboratory measurements. In this study the Monte Carlo transport code, MCNPX, which is a general-purpose Monte Carlo N &minus / Particle code that extends the capabilities of the MCNP code, developed at the Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico, was used. The study considers how various parameters such as (1) coincidence summing, (2) volume, (3) atomic number (Z) and (4) density, affects the absolute photopeak efficiency of the ERL&rsquo / s HPGe detector in a close geometry (Marinelli beaker) for soil, sand, KCl and liquid samples. The results from these simulations are presented here, together with an intercomparison exercise of two MC codes (MCNPX and a C++ program developed for this study) that determine the energy deposition of a point source in germanium spheres of radii 1 cm and 5 cm.<br /> <br /> A sensitivity analysis on the effect of the detector dimensions (dead layer and core of detector crystal) on the photopeak detection efficiency in a liquid sample and the effect of moisture content on the photopeak detection efficiency in sand and soil samples, was also carried out. This study has shown evidence that the dead layer of the ERL HPGe detector may be larger than stated by the manufacturer, possibly due to warming up of the detector crystal. This would result in a decrease in the photopeak efficiency of up to 8 % if the dead layer of the crystal were doubled from its original size of 0.05 cm. This study shows the need for coincidence summing correction factors for the gamma lines (911.1 keV and 968.1 keV) in the 232Th series for determining accurate activity concentrations in environmental samples. For the liquid source the gamma lines, 121.8 keV, 244.7 keV, 444.1 keV and 1085.5 keV of the 152Eu series, together with the 1173.2 keV and 1332.5 keV gamma lines of the 60Co, are particularly prone to coincidence summing. In the investigation into the effects of density and volume on the photopeak efficiency for the KCl samples, it has been found that the simulated results are in good agreement with experimental data. For the range of sample densities that are dealt with by the ERL it has been found that the drop in photopeak efficiency is less than 5 %. This study shows that the uncertainty of the KCl sample activity measurement due to the effect of different filling volumes in a Marinelli beaker is estimated in the range of 0.6 % per mm and is not expected to vary appreciably with photon energy. In the case of the effect of filling height on the efficiency for the soil sample, it was found that there is a large discrepancy in the trends of the simulated and experimental curves. This discrepancy could be a result of the use of only one sand sample in this study and therefore the homogeneity of the sample has to be investigated. The effect of atomic number has been found to be negligible for the soil and sand compositions for energies above 400 keV, however if the composition of the heavy elements is not properly considered when simulating soil and sand samples, the effect of atomic number on the absolute photopeak efficiency in the low energy (&lt / 400 keV) region can make a 14 % difference.

<p>The outcomes for both (i) radiation therapy and (ii) preclinical small animal radio- biology studies are dependent on the delivery of a known quantity of radiation to a specific and intentional location. Adverse effects can result from these procedures if the dose to the target is too high or low, and can also result from an incorrect spatial distribution in which nearby normal healthy tissue can be undesirably damaged by poor radiation delivery techniques. Thus, in mice and humans alike, the spatial dose distributions from radiation sources should be well characterized in terms of the absolute dose quantity, and with pin-point accuracy. When dealing with the steep spatial dose gradients consequential to either (i) high dose rate (HDR) brachytherapy or (ii) within the small organs and tissue inhomogeneities of mice, obtaining accurate and highly precise dose results can be very challenging, considering commercially available radiation detection tools, such as ion chambers, are often too large for in-vivo use.</p><p>In this dissertation two tools are developed and applied for both clinical and preclinical radiation measurement. The first tool is a novel radiation detector for acquiring physical measurements, fabricated from an inorganic nano-crystalline scintillator that has been fixed on an optical fiber terminus. This dosimeter allows for the measurement of point doses to sub-millimeter resolution, and has the ability to be placed in-vivo in humans and small animals. Real-time data is displayed to the user to provide instant quality assurance and dose-rate information. The second tool utilizes an open source Monte Carlo particle transport code, and was applied for small animal dosimetry studies to calculate organ doses and recommend new techniques of dose prescription in mice, as well as to characterize dose to the murine bone marrow compartment with micron-scale resolution.</p><p>Hardware design changes were implemented to reduce the overall fiber diameter to <0.9 mm for the nano-crystalline scintillator based fiber optic detector (NanoFOD) system. Lower limits of device sensitivity were found to be approximately 0.05 cGy/s. Herein, this detector was demonstrated to perform quality assurance of clinical 192Ir HDR brachytherapy procedures, providing comparable dose measurements as thermo-luminescent dosimeters and accuracy within 20% of the treatment planning software (TPS) for 27 treatments conducted, with an inter-quartile range ratio to the TPS dose value of (1.02-0.94=0.08). After removing contaminant signals (Cerenkov and diode background), calibration of the detector enabled accurate dose measurements for vaginal applicator brachytherapy procedures. For 192Ir use, energy response changed by a factor of 2.25 over the SDD values of 3 to 9 cm; however a cap made of 0.2 mm thickness silver reduced energy dependence to a factor of 1.25 over the same SDD range, but had the consequence of reducing overall sensitivity by 33%.</p><p>For preclinical measurements, dose accuracy of the NanoFOD was within 1.3% of MOSFET measured dose values in a cylindrical mouse phantom at 225 kV for x-ray irradiation at angles of 0, 90, 180, and 270˝. The NanoFOD exhibited small changes in angular sensitivity, with a coefficient of variation (COV) of 3.6% at 120 kV and 1% at 225 kV. When the NanoFOD was placed alongside a MOSFET in the liver of a sacrificed mouse and treatment was delivered at 225 kV with 0.3 mm Cu filter, the dose difference was only 1.09% with use of the 4x4 cm collimator, and -0.03% with no collimation. Additionally, the NanoFOD utilized a scintillator of 11 µm thickness to measure small x-ray fields for microbeam radiation therapy (MRT) applications, and achieved 2.7% dose accuracy of the microbeam peak in comparison to radiochromic film. Modest differences between the full-width at half maximum measured lateral dimension of the MRT system were observed between the NanoFOD (420 µm) and radiochromic film (320 µm), but these differences have been explained mostly as an artifact due to the geometry used and volumetric effects in the scintillator material. Characterization of the energy dependence for the yttrium-oxide based scintillator material was performed in the range of 40-320 kV (2 mm Al filtration), and the maximum device sensitivity was achieved at 100 kV. Tissue maximum ratio data measurements were carried out on a small animal x-ray irradiator system at 320 kV and demonstrated an average difference of 0.9% as compared to a MOSFET dosimeter in the range of 2.5 to 33 cm depth in tissue equivalent plastic blocks. Irradiation of the NanoFOD fiber and scintillator material on a 137Cs gamma irradiator to 1600 Gy did not produce any measurable change in light output, suggesting that the NanoFOD system may be re-used without the need for replacement or recalibration over its lifetime.</p><p>For small animal irradiator systems, researchers can deliver a given dose to a target organ by controlling exposure time. Currently, researchers calculate this exposure time by dividing the total dose that they wish to deliver by a single provided dose rate value. This method is independent of the target organ. Studies conducted here used Monte Carlo particle transport codes to justify a new method of dose prescription in mice, that considers organ specific doses. Monte Carlo simulations were performed in the Geant4 Application for Tomographic Emission (GATE) toolkit using a MOBY mouse whole-body phantom. The non-homogeneous phantom was comprised of 256x256x800 voxels of size 0.145x0.145x0.145 mm3. Differences of up to 20-30% in dose to soft-tissue target organs was demonstrated, and methods for alleviating these errors were suggested during whole body radiation of mice by utilizing organ specific and x-ray tube filter specific dose rates for all irradiations.</p><p>Monte Carlo analysis was used on 1 µm resolution CT images of a mouse femur and a mouse vertebra to calculate the dose gradients within the bone marrow (BM) compartment of mice based on different radiation beam qualities relevant to x-ray and isotope type irradiators. Results and findings indicated that soft x-ray beams (160 kV at 0.62 mm Cu HVL and 320 kV at 1 mm Cu HVL) lead to substantially higher dose to BM within close proximity to mineral bone (within about 60 µm) as compared to hard x-ray beams (320 kV at 4 mm Cu HVL) and isotope based gamma irradiators (137Cs). The average dose increases to the BM in the vertebra for these four aforementioned radiation beam qualities were found to be 31%, 17%, 8%, and 1%, respectively. Both in-vitro and in-vivo experimental studies confirmed these simulation results, demonstrating that the 320 kV, 1 mm Cu HVL beam caused statistically significant increased killing to the BM cells at 6 Gy dose levels in comparison to both the 320 kV, 4 mm Cu HVL and the 662 keV, 137Cs beams.</p> / Dissertation

O desenvolvimento tecnológico tem aumentado o uso das fontes de radiação, fazendo com que sejam estudados novos métodos, técnicas e materiais para quantificá-la. A dosimetria termoluminescente é uma das técnicas mais versáteis para a avaliação quantitativa de doses de radiações ionizantes, com destaque para aplicações em medicina, indústria, arqueologia e proteção radiológica. O sulfato de cálcio dopado com disprósio (CaSO4:Dy), ou TLD-900, é a única pastilha termoluminescente produzida comercialmente para fins dosimétricos no Brasil, porém ainda com alto custo. O estudo de diferentes dopantes em pastilhas com base de CaSO4 pode conferir características dosimétricas adequadas para diferentes usos e aplicações. O objetivo desse trabalho foi a produção e o estudo de caraterísticas dosimétricas de pastilhas termoluminescentes a base de CaSO4 dopadas com disprósio, túlio, térbio e európio e suas combinações. Foram estudadas as curvas de emissão termoluminescente das pastilhas produzidas em comparação com pastilhas comerciais de TLD-900. Além disso, testes dosimétricos de resposta em função da dose, sensibilidade, dependência energética, reprodutibilidade, homogeneidade de grupo e desvanecimento de resposta foram estudados para feixes de fótons na faixa de 30 a 120 keV e 137Cs. Todas as pastilhas produzidas apresentaram dependência energética, sendo esta maior para o feixe ISO N40 (até 14 vezes maior). Dentre os materiais produzidos, as pastilhas de CaSO4:Tm foram as que produziram maiores intensidades de sinal para uma mesma dose de radiação, apresentando os melhores resultados de sensibilidade (154,8 nC/mGy para 137Cs), homogeneidade (36,4%) e reprodutibilidade (7,2%). A facilidade do método de produção utilizado e as respostas obtidas em baixas doses fazem dos dosímetros de CaSO4:Tm produzidos excelentes alternativas às pastilhas comerciais para o uso em aplicações diversas e em Radioproteção / Technological development has increased the use of radiation sources, leading to the study of new methods, techniques and materials to quantify these sources. Thermoluminescent dosimetry is one of the most versatile techniques for quantitative evaluation of ionizing radiation dose, with emphasis for medical and industrial applications, archeology and radiation protection. Calcium sulfate doped with dysprosium (CaSO4:Dy), or TLD-900, is the only thermoluminescent pellets commercially produced for dosimetric purposes in Brazil, however it is still expensive. The study of different dopants in CaSO4 based pellets can grant dosimetric characteristics suitable for different uses and applications. The goal of the present work was the production and study of the dosimetric characteristics of CaSO4 based thermoluminescent pellets doped with dysprosium, thulium, terbium and europium, and their combinations. The thermoluminescent emission curve of the produced pellets was studied and compared with commercial TLD-900. Furthermore, dosimetric tests of dose-response, sensitivity, energetic dependence, reproducibility, group homogeneity and fading were performed for photon beams ranging from 30 to 120 keV and for 137Cs. All of the produced pellets presented energetic dependence, the highest being for N40 ISO beam (up to 14 times higher). Among the produced materials, CaSO4:Tm pellets produced the higher signal intensity for a same radiation dose, presenting the best results of sensitivity (154,8 nC/mGy for 137Cs), homogeneity (36,4%) and reproducibility (7,2%). The easiness of the production method used and the response obtained in low doses make the produced CaSO4:Tm dosimeter an excellent alternative to commercial pellets for many applications and radiation protection

A research report submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in the field of Medical Physics. 2017 / Aim The aim of this research was to contribute to clinical implementation of the small field dosimetry Code of Practice (CoP) that is due to be published by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in collaboration with the American Association of Physicists in Medicine (AAPM) (1). A 6 cm × 6 cm virtual machine-specific reference (fmsr) field was established in a clinical 60Cobalt teletherapy beam used for conventional radiotherapy at Charlotte Maxeke Johannesburg Academic Hospital, and relative output factors were measured down to a set field size of 1 cm × 1 cm using three different models of Physikalisch-Technische Werkstatten (PTW) small field ionization chambers. Materials and Methodology The measurements were all performed on a Cobalt teletherapy unit (MDS Nordion Equinox, S/N 2009) in a PTW MP3 water phantom. The small field ionization chambers that were used were a PTW 31016 3D pinpoint 0.016 cm3, a PTW 31006 pinpoint 0.015 cm3 and a PTW 31010 semiflex 0.125 cm3. A calibrated PTW 30013 Farmer 0.6 cm3 ionization chamber was used to provide traceability for the cross calibration. A ―daisy chain‖ methodology was used to perform the cross calibration in a virtual fmsr field of 6 cm × 6 cm and then establish the absolute dose rate in a 4 cm × 4 cm field. Relative output factors as a function of field size were measured with each small field ionization chamber and then compared to published results. Results Small square fields from a 60Cobalt beam were created using the secondary collimators integrated into the unit. Equivalent square fields were calculated using the profiles obtained by the three ionization chambers during scanning and were in agreement with the ones that were programmed into the console. The coincidence of the central axis of the beam and the point of measurement for each detector was determined from the beam profiles. The cross calibration and daisy chain measurements resulted in a consistent dose rate of within + 0.6% in the 4 cm × 4 cm field when measured with the four different ionization chambers. For 6 cm × 6 cm, 4 cm × 4 cm, 3 cm × 3 cm and 2 cm × 2 cm field sizes, relative output factors obtained from the uncorrected detectors’ response agreed to within + 0.8 % between the three small field ionization chambers. The variation in the 1 cm × 1 cm field size was + 8.1 %. When compared to published data, large differences in field size correction factors were obtained. Conclusion Small field dosimetry in a 60Cobalt photon beam using three different PTW small field ionization chamber models was investigated. A cross calibration in a virtual msr field was done followed by a daisy chain process to determine the dose rate in a small field. Dose profiles and relative output factors were then measured and compared. The lack of lateral charge particle equilibrium and volume averaging effect was evident when using the PTW 31010 semiflex chamber in a 1 cm × 1 cm field. The PTW 31006 pinpoint and 31016 3D pinpoint were in close agreement for field sizes down to 1 cm × 1 cm with the 3D pinpoint performing as the best detector in this study. The optimal positioning of a detector should be determined from beam profile scans and not the engineering diagrams. The PTW 31016 3D pinpoint and PTW 31006 pinpoint are recommended for the determination of output factors in small field sizes. However, field output correction factors are required for both detectors in field sizes under 2 cm × 2 cm. Small field data published in the British Journal of Radiology (BJR) Supplement 25 (2) should not be used to benchmark dosimetry in modern 60Cobalt teletherapy units. / MT 2017

La mesure des niveaux de rayonnement est une exigence essentielle dans le LHC et ses lignes d'injection afin de quantifier les effets des radiations sur l'électronique et de fournir une connaissance détaillée du champ de rayonnement. Le système de surveillance des rayonnements pour l'électronique au CERN, le "RadMon '', a été installé dans les zones critiques où l'équipement est ou sera placé. Les problèmes rencontrés au cours des dernières années d'utilisation du Radmon, et la nécessité d'améliorer la précision et la résolution des mesures a conduit au lancement d'une nouvelle conception du moniteur.Ce travail décrit l'architecture du nouveau RadMon (V6), sa fiabilité dans les environnements radiatifs et de la stratégie adoptée pour choisir et qualifier les capteurs utilisés pour surveiller le champ de rayonnement mixte des accélérateurs du LHC. Les directives du CERN ont été adoptées pour qualifier les composants RadMon sous rayonnement afin de développer une nouvelle architecture à la fois plus tolérante au rayonnement et plus polyvalente que celui de la version précédente. Dans ce contexte, les défis que les tests de rayonnement imposent pour mesurer les Single Event Upsets (SEUs) sur un composant complexe à signaux mixtes tels que le convertisseur analogique-numérique, ont conduit au développement d'une technique de test innovant, qui sera décrit dans cette thèse.L'environnement radiatif complexe du LHC impose un processus de qualification particulier qui sera décrit et discuté dans ce travail pour les RadFets (capteur dose ionisante) et les mémoires SRAM (capteur de fluence High Energy Hadrons).L'utilisation du RadFet dans un champ mixte de rayonnement a été étudié et analysé au moyen de sources de 60Co et de faisceaux de protons de différentes énergies.Les RadFets ont été ré-étalonné en étudiant le débit de dose, les sources de particules, la température, la guérison thermique en fonction de l'épaisseur d'oxyde. En outre, grâce à la nouvelle architecture de la RadMon, de nouvelles configurations de polarisation ont été testées pour améliorer la résolution.Deux types de mémoires SRAM avec des nœuds technologiques de 400 et 90 nm ont été testés et calibrés en suivant une méthode de qualification stricte qui comprend des tests protons,dans la plage de 30 à 400 MeV et neutrons, depuis les énergies thermiques jusqu'à des énergies intermédiaires (~ 14 MeV). La mémoire 90 nm améliore la précision et la résolution de la mesure de la fluence hadronique. En outre, l'utilisation simultanée des deux types de mémoires améliore la précision de la détection des neutrons thermiques par rapport à la version précédente, grâce à d'une procédure qui sera détaillée dans ce travail.Les efforts en vue de l'amélioration de la résolution des mesures de TID pour le nouveau RadMon conduisent à la recherche et à l'étude d'un nouveau type de dosimètre : le dosimètre a Grille Flottante (FGDOS). Le capteur intégrant une électronique complexe, une qualification complète sous rayonnement était nécessaire. Des tests en champ mixte, des tests au 60Co et des tests au protons ont été réalisés afin d'évaluer les performances et les problèmes potentiels du capteur. Dans ce contexte, un modèle analytique du capteur a été conçu pour démontrer que la structure à Grille Flottante pouvait être utilisée comme instrument de mesure du ‘charge yield' à température ambiante et sous des champs électriques faibles.La caractérisation de la tolérance au rayonnement du matériel, le processus de qualification et les étalonnages des capteurs ont considérablement amélioré la fiabilité globale et la qualité des mesures sur la nouvelle version du RadMon. Ces améliorations font du RadMon un instrument de référence pour la surveillance des rayonnements des champs mixtes complexes, tels que ceux rencontrés dans le LHC et sa chaîne d'injecteurs, mais aussi pour d'autres centres de recherche en physique des particules, comme JLAB aux États-Unis, J-PARC au Japon. / The measurement of the radiation levels is an essential requirement in the LHC and its injection lines in order to quantify radiation effects on electronics and provide a detailed knowledge of the radiation field. The radiation monitoring system for the electronics at CERN, the “RadMon'', was installed in critical areas where equipment is or will be placed. Issues experienced in the last years of Radmon operation, the obsolescence of a few fundamental components of the electronic board and the necessity to improve both the accuracy and the resolution of measurements led to the launch of a new design of the monitor.This work describes the architecture of the new RadMon (V6), its reliability in radiation environments and the strategy adopted to choose and qualify the sensors, used for monitoring the mixed radiation field of the LHC accelerators. The CERN guidelines were adopted to qualify the RadMon components under radiation in order to develop a new architecture both more tolerant to radiation and more versatile than that of the previous version. In this context, the challenges that radiation tests impose for measuring Single Event Effects (SEUs) on a complex mixed-signal component such as the Analog to Digital converter, led to the development of an innovative test technique, which will be described in this thesis.The reliability of the RadMon measurements strongly depends on the calibration of its sensors. The complex radiation environment of the LHC imposes a peculiar qualification process which will be described and discussed in this work for the RadFets (Total Ionizing Dose sensor) and the SRAM memories (High Energy Hadrons fluence sensor).The use of the RadFet in a mixed field radiation environment has been studied and analyzed by means of 60Co sources as well as proton beams at different energies.The RadFets have been re-calibrated by studying the dose rate, particle sources, temperature, annealing and fading effects as a function of the oxide thickness. Furthermore, thanks to the new architecture of the RadMon, new biasing configurations have been tested to improve the resolution.Two types of SRAM memories with technology nodes of 400 and 90nm have been tested and calibrated by following a strict qualification methodology which includes tests with protons in the range 30-400 MeV, and with neutrons from thermal energies up to intermediate energies (~14 MeV). The 90nm memory improves the accuracy and resolution of the hadron fluence measurement. Moreover, the simultaneous use of both types of memories permits an improvement on the accuracy of the thermal neutron detection with respect to the previous version, as a result of a procedure which will be detailed in this work.The efforts towards the improvement of the TID measurements resolution for the new RadMon lead to the research and study of a new type of dosimeter sensor: the Floating Gate dosimeter (FGDOS). The sensor embeds complex circuitry, thus a full radiation qualification was necessary. Mixed field radiation tests, 60Co and protons tests have been carried out in order to evaluate the performance and the possible issues of the sensor. In this context, an analytical model of the sensor was developed to prove that the floating gate structure can be used as charge yield measurement instrument at room temperature and at low electric fields.The radiation tolerance characterization of the hardware, the qualification and calibration process of the sensors have significantly improved the overall reliability and quality of the measurements of the new RadMon. These improvements turned it into a reference instrument for radiation monitoring of complex mixed fields, such as the one encountered in the LHC, its injectors chain, and other particle physics research centers, such as JLAB in US, J-PARC in Japan.

O propósito de um objeto simulador é representar a alteração do campo de radiação provocada pela absorção e espalhamento em um dado tecido ou órgão de interesse. Suas características geométricas e de composição devem estar próximos o máximo possível aos valores associados ao seu análogo natural. Estruturas anatômicas podem ser transformadas em objetos virtuais 3D por técnicas de imageamento médico (p. ex. Tomografia Computadorizada) e impressas por prototipagem rápida utilizando materiais como, por exemplo, o ácido poliláctico. Sua produção para pacientes específicos requer o preenchimento de requisitos como a acurácia geométrica com a anatomia do individuo e a equivalência ao tecido, de modo que se possa realizar medidas utilizáveis, e ser insensível aos efeitos da radiação. O objetivo desse trabalho foi avaliar o comportamento de materiais impressos 3D quando expostos a feixes de fótons diversos, com ênfase para a qualidade de radiotherapia (6 MV), visando a sua aplicação na dosimetria clínica. Para isso foram usados 30 dosímetros termoluminescentes de LiF:Mg,Ti. Foi analisada também a equivalência entre o PMMA e o PLA impresso para a resposta termoluminescente de 30 dosímetros de CaSO4:Dy. As irradiações com feixes de fótons com qualidade de radioterapia foram simuladas com o uso do sistema de planejamento Eclipse&trade;, com o Anisotropic Analytical Algorithm e o Acuros&reg XB Advanced Dose Calculation algorithm. Além do uso do Eclipse&trade; e dos testes dosimétricos, foram realizadas simulações computacionais utilizando o código MCNP5. As simulações com o código MCNP5 foram realizadas para calcular o coeficiente de atenuação de placas impressas expostas a diversas qualidades de raios X de radiodiagnóstico e para desenvolver um modelo computacional de placas impressas 3D. / The purpose of a phantom is to represent the change in the radiation field caused by absorption and scattering in a given tissue or organ of interest. Its geometrical characteristics and composition should be as close as possible to the values associated with its natural analogue. Anatomical structures can be transformed into 3D virtual objects by medical imaging techniques (e.g. Computed Tomography) and printed by rapid prototyping using materials, for example, polylactic acid. Its production for specific pacients requires fulfilling requirements such as geometric accuracy with the individual\'s anatomy and tissue equivalence, so that usable measurements can be made, and be insensitive to the radiation effects. The objective of this work was to evaluate the behavior of 3D printed materials when exposed to different photon beams, with emphasis on the quality of radiotherapy (6 MV), aiming its application in clinical dosimetry. For this, 30 thermoluminescent dosimeters of LiF:Mg,Ti were used. The equivalence between the PMMA and the printed PLA for the thermoluminescent response of 30 dosimeters of CaSO4: Dy was also analyzed. The irradiations with radiotherapy photon beams were simulated using the Eclipse&trade; treatment planning system,with the Anisotropic Analytical Algorithm and the Acuros&reg XB Advanced Dose Calculation algorithm. In addition to the use of Eclipse&trade; and dosimetric tests, computational simulations were realized using the MCNP5 code. Simulations with the MCNP5 code were performed to calculate the attenuation coefficient of printed plates exposed to different radiodiagnosis X-rays qualities and to develop a computational model of 3D printed plates.

A norma da ABNT ISO/IEC 17025/2005 especifica requerimentos gerais para competência de laboratórios de ensaio e calibração. Um destes requerimentos é que instalações desses tipos devem sempre ter seus processos otimizados e para tal é necessário que as incertezas envolvidas sejam estimadas e reduzidas o máximo possível. Para atingir tal quesito, o Laboratório de Calibração de Instrumentos (LCI), o laboratório responsável por calibrações de dosímetros no Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares (IPEN/CNEN), tem adquirido vários equipamentos para suas instalações, e em especial para o Laboratório de Calibração de medidores de radiação X. Dentre estes aparelhos, destaca-se uma roda de posicionamento de filtros com acionamento automático e o uso de softwares de controle com o intuito de melhorar o processo de calibração reduzindo a ocorrência de erros limitando ao máximo, por exemplo, a necessidade de intervenção humana. Um sistema de controle e aquisição de dados para calibração de instrumentos semi-automatizado foi desenvolvido com LabVIEW e está sendo submetido a sucessivos testes e melhorias. O programa é dividido em dois módulos: um responsável pela calibração da câmara monitora com relação a um dosímetro padrão de referência e outro responsável por calibrações rotineiras utilizando a câmara monitora como padrão de referência. Grandezas que influenciam as medições também foram analisadas e as devidas correções foram implementadas no sistema. Além de adquirir dados e controlar equipamentos, o programa também calcula coeficientes de calibração com respectivas incertezas. Uma análise final mostrou que o sistema de fato otimizou o processo de calibração, ajudando na redução da dose ocupacional e incertezas, diminuindo o tempo médio de calibração e previnindo erros de origem humana. / The Brazilian standard ABNT ISO/IEC 17025/2005 specifies general requirements for the competence of testing and calibration facilities. One of these requirements states that these facilities must always optimize their processes and thus, uncertainties must be estimated and lowered as much as possible. In order to achieve such goal, the Laboratório de Calibração de Instrumentos (LCI), a laboratory responsible for dosimeter calibration at the Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares (IPEN/CNEN) have acquired some equipment for the LCIs X-Ray calibration system, such as a rotating filter holder, and it has also been developing software in order to provide the best calibration results with lowest external interferences (from the operator, for instance) to diminish the possibilities of error occurrences. A semi-automated LabVIEW-based calibration software has been developed at LCI and it has been subjected to constant testing and improvements so far. The software is divided in two basic modules: one is responsible for calibration of the monitor chamber with a reference standard dosimeter, while the other is used to perform instruments calibrations using the monitor chamber as reference. Several influence quantities have been analyzed and the proper corrections have been added to the software as multiplicative correction factors. The software is not only able to acquire data from all the equipment used in the laboratory, but also it is able to calculate calibration factors and its uncertainties. A later analysis shows how this system has optimized the whole calibration process, lowering the occupational dose, reducing the mean time of calibration, uncertainties and preventing errors caused by the systems users.

Este trabalho tem por objetivo investigar o comportamento da terapia fotodinâmica (PDT) em leveduras patogênicas. Tem sido proposto que a PDT pode inativar células microbianas e, um grande número de fotossensibilizadores e fontes de irradiação são reportados em diferentes parâmetros. Para melhor entendimento dos processos fotodinâmicos, a taxa de fluência, fluência e tempo de irradiação foram estudadas, bem como fluências iguais em parâmetros diferentes foram comparadas entre si. O papel da concentração de azul de metileno e do transporte desta droga pela membrana fúngica foram investigados. Diferentes cepas de Cryptococcus neoformans foram comparadas frente à ação fotodinâmica com fotossensibilizadores distintos. Após esta etapa, atividades metabólicas de processo de morte microbiana e produção de melanina foram avaliadas quanto a sua interferência na inativação fúngica. Por fim, um modelo de criptococose foi desenvolvido para avaliação in vivo da ação fotodinâmica. Foi observado que parâmetros de irradiação influenciam substancialmente os resultados da PDT em leveduras e que, fluências iguais em diferentes tempos de irradiação podem apresentar resultados diferentes. Em conclusão, a fluência não deve ser utilizada como parâmetro único para comparação dos resultados de fotoinativação de leveduras. Além disso, o transporte de azul de metileno pela membrana fúngica pode influenciar os efeitos da PDT. A ação fotodinâmica depende do sítio de ligação do fotossensibilizador na célula e não somente da quantidade de moléculas no interior do microrganismo. É importante ressaltar que características intrínsecas de cada cepa podem influenciar diretamente os efeitos da PDT. As células morrem geralmente por processo não lítico, e quando utilizada in vivo, a PDT mostrou-se capaz de reduzir a recuperação de células viáveis. / This study aimed to investigate the photodynamic therapy (PDT) behavior on pathogenic yeasts. It has been proposed in literature that PDT is able to inactivate microbial cells, and a number of photosensitizer (FS) agents and irradiation sources were reported with different parameters. The role of fluence rate, as well as fluence and irradiation time was studied to achieve a deep understanding of this subject and to compare equivalent fluences under dissimilar irradiation parameters. Methylene blue concentration and its transport through yeast membrane were also focused. Cryptococcus neoformans strains that present particular metabolic characteristics were used to investigate photosensitizers and their ability to inactivate yeast. Furthermore, the role of PDT in microbial death process and inhibition of killing effects by melanin production were analyzed. Thereafter, an in vivo model of cryptococcosis was developed to evaluate photodynamic effect. The main point of our results was that light parameters play an important role on yeast inactivation and the same fluence under different irradiation parameters present dissimilar quantity of cell death. In conclusion, fluence per se should not be used as the only parameter to compare photoinactivation effects on yeast cells. In addition, MB transport thought yeast membrane can change PDT effects, as well as the photosensitizer preferential bind site inside the cell. The quantity of PS uptake, under specific conditions, does not seem to present a direct relation with cell inactivation. In addition, microbial strain characteristics can directly interfere on PDT results and cells appear to be killed by an apoptotic-like effect. Finally, PDT can kill C. neoformans in vivo and reduces its recover from infected site.

Este trabalho consiste no estudo e nas aplicações da dosimetria por Ressonância Paramagnética Eletrônico (RPE). Em uma tentativa de realizar a dosimetria retrospectiva do esmalte dentário através do menor método invasivo possível utilizamos espectrômetros de Ressonância Paramagnética Eletrônico (RPE), operando em Banda - X e Banda - K, visando determinar as condições que poderiam ser usados em casos de exposições acidentais. Primeiro, um pequeno prisma de esmalte foi removido e um almofariz de ágata foi utilizado para triturar este prisma até que as partículas atinjam um diâmetro de cerca de 0,5 mm. Este processo de extração do esmalte resultou em um menor sinal de artefato comparado com a extração de esmalte realizado diretamente com uma broca de abrasão diamantada. A moagem manual do esmalte não leva a qualquer sinal induzido de RPE, enquanto que o uso de uma broca diamantada mesmo em baixa velocidade aparecem rebarbas produzindo um sinal de artefato equivalente ao sinal dosimétrico induzido por uma dose de 500 mGy de radiação gama. Uma massa de 25 mg de esmalte foi removida de um dente molar previamente irradiado in vitro com uma dose de 100 mGy. Esta quantidade de esmalte foi suficiente para detectar o sinal dosimétrico em um espectrômetro de Banda - X padrão. Utilizando a Ressonância Paramagnética Eletrônica (RPE) espectros de goma arábica irradiados com doses entre 0,5 e 5 kGy foram estudados. A relação linear entre a dose absorvida e as intensidades dos espectros de RPE foi observada. Espectros de RPE irradiados de goma arábica apresentaram um decaimento das concentrações relativas dos radicais livres originados pela radiação produzindo pelo menos duas espécies de radicais livres com meia-vida de 3,3 e 125,4 horas. Os resultados das simulações encontradas para estes grupos radicais foram giso = 2,0046; A = 1,2 mT e gx = gy = 2,0062, gz = 2,0025. / In an attempt to make in vitro electron spin resonance (ESR) retrospective dosimetry of the tooth enamel a lesser invasive method, experiments using X-Band and K-Band were performed, aiming to determine conditions that could be used in cases of accidental exposures. First, a small prism from the enamel was removed and ground with an agate mortar and pestle until particles reach a diameter of approximately less than 0.5 mm. This enamel extraction process resulted in lower signal artifact compared with the direct enamel extraction performed with a diamond burr abrasion. The manual grinding of the enamel does not lead to any induced ESR signal artifact, whereas the use of a diamond burr at low speed produces a signal artifact equivalent to the dosimetric signal induced by a dose of 500 mGy of gamma irradiation. A mass of 25 mg of enamel was removed from a sound molar tooth previously irradiated in vitro with a dose of 100 mGy. This amount of enamel was enough to detect the dosimetric signal in a standard X-Band spectrometer. Electron spin resonance (ESR) spectra of irradiated gum Arabic with doses between 0.5 to 5kGy were studied. A linear relationship between the absorbed dose and the intensities of the ESR spectra was observed. ESR spectra of irradiated gum Arabic showed a decay of relative concentrations of free radicals originated by radiation and the production of at least two species of free radicals with half-times: 3.3 and 125.4 hours. The results of spectral simulations for these radical groups were giso= 2.0046; A= 1.2mT and gx= gy= 2.0062, gz= 2.0025.

Neste trabalho, cujo objetivo foi fornecer subsídios que permitam estabelecer um sistema de dosimetria para as tripulações de aeronaves que operam no território nacional, foi desenvolvida uma técnica para realizar medições do equivalente de dose ambiente em aeronaves. Foi testado um detector ativo, para uso embarcado em aeronaves, avaliando-se sua adequação a este tipo específico de medição, assim como sua suscetibilidade às interferências magnética e eletromagnética. O equipamento foi calibrado em campos metrologicamente rastreados e foi verificado em um campo especial do laboratório europeu CERN, que reproduz com grande proximidade o espectro de partículas existentes em altitudes de voo de aeronaves, sendo a seguir testado em diversos ensaios em voo, em uma aeronave da Força Aérea Brasileira. Os resultados foram avaliados e comparados com aqueles obtidos por diversos programas computacionais de estimativa de dose oriunda de radiação cósmica, com respeito à sua adequação para uso na região da América do Sul e foi selecionado o programa CARI-6 para avaliar as doses efetivas médias estimadas a que estão sujeitas as tripulações que operam nesta região. Foi efetuada uma avaliação estatística da distribuição de doses efetivas das tripulações dos voos que operam na região da América do Sul e Caribe e concluiu-se que grande parte destas tripulações estão sujeitas a doses efetivas anuais que ultrapassam o limite estabelecido para membros do público. Adicionalmente, foi proposto um dosímetro passivo preliminar, baseado em detectores termoluminescentes, e foram ainda estabelecidas colaborações internacionais com grupos de pesquisa do Reino Unido e da Itália, para a realização de medições conjuntas do equivalente de dose ambiente em aeronaves. / The objective of this work is the establishment of a dosimetric system for the aircrew in the domestic territory. A technique to perform measurements of ambient dose equivalent in aircrafts was developed. An active detector was evaluated for onboard aircraft use, testing its adequacy to this specific type of measurement as well as its susceptibility to the magnetic and electromagnetic interferences. The equipment was calibrated in standard radiation beams and in a special field of the European Laboratory CERN, that reproduces with great proximity the real spectrum in aircraft flight altitudes; it was also tested in several flights, in an Brazilian Air Force\'s aircraft. The results were evaluated and compared with those obtained from several computational programs for cosmic radiation estimatives, with respect to its adequacy for use in the South American region. The program CARI-6 was selected to evaluate the estimated averaged effective doses for the aircrew who operate in this region. A statistical distribution of aircrew effective doses in South America and Caribe was made, and the results show that a great part of this aircrew members are subjected to annual effective doses that exceed the dose limits for the members of the public. Additionally, a preliminary passive dosemeter, based in thermoluminescent detectors, was proposed; international collaborations with United Kingdom and Italy were established for joint measurements of the ambient equivalent doses in aircrafts.