The Rio+20 United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development is expected to result in the launching of a process to devise a set of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2015. Whilst indicators are perceived to be a good vehicle of monitoring progress, currently there is no universally agreed method of measuring sustainable development. This thesis addresses this issue through assessing whether the capabilities approach can be adopted for a global framework in measuring sustainable development. In order to determine this, both theoretical and practical implications will have to be understood. The former is addressed through reviewing the compatibility between the key concepts of sustainable development and the capabilities approach. The latter is addressed through obtaining empirical evidence on the key drivers in selecting indicators via focus group discussions and a quantitative survey with key individuals involved in the Sustainable Development Indicators (SDIs) project in Malaysia. It was found that a weak conceptual basis can be attributed as the major challenge for establishing global sustainable development indicators. Whilst recognising that a range of mechanisms are required for operationalization, it was concluded that the capabilities approach provides a sound conceptual basis, framed on the basis of justice and equity in expanding and sustaining the capabilities of current and future generations to pursue their needs.

Over the last twenty years or more, Uganda has benefitted from significant strides in water and sanitation initiated by the United Nations' Millennium Development Goals. While the rapid progress towards development has been vastly beneficial, it is also important that it does not occur at the expense of the environment. The environmental impacts of these water sources must be evaluated and understood. However, to develop a robust understanding of the impact requires inclusion of the community members who use these sources and their perceptions of them. Consequently, the goal of this research is to investigate the interrelationships between socioeconomic factors, water source features, and household water source and treatment choices, along with the associated environmental impacts of those choices. This research focuses on two villages in Wakiso District, Uganda--Nalugala and Kitala and includes: (1) development and implementation of a country-specific survey of 200 households to gain qualitative and quantitative accounts of socioeconomic factors (e.g., education, gender of the head of household, number of household members), water source features (cost, convenience, quality, quantity of water) and community members' water supply choices; (2) statistical analysis to investigate any correlation between socioeconomic factors, water source features and household source choice; and (3) a life cycle assessment of each water source and treatment method used in the surveyed communities to highlight their associated environmental impacts. Based on statistical findings, the water source features which are considered most significant to impacting household choice are convenience, visual water quality (turbidity), and cost. When inspecting socioeconomic factors using the Progress out of Poverty Index (PPI), no significant correlation was determined between the PPI levels and source choice. Consequently, the PPI was disaggregated to further analyze any significant correlations between socioeconomic indicators in the survey (social, economic, and educational) and water source choice. Three factors (i.e. gender of head of household, number of household members, and construction material of the house's external walls) were significantly correlated with the household's choice for their water source. The combination of qualitative and quantitative survey data underscores the disconnection between community members' perceptions of water quality and the actual, laboratory-tested data. This notion (perception vs. reality) asserts itself because the treatment techniques that respondents use for local sources are based on their perceived ideas of water quality. The techniques sometimes contradict the theoretical treatment methods (based on water quality tests) needed to raise a source's water to potable standards. A life cycle assessment (LCA) was conducted on each source and (1) the treatment methods community members most frequently used in comparison to (2) the theoretical treatment methods which would be necessary to raise each source to potable standards. Tap water was found to have the highest environmental impact based on actual community practices. Although it was tested to meet drinking water standards, community members boiled it, increasing its impacts in the categories of land use and global warming. On the other hand, rainwater and surface water had the highest impacts in the same categories (global warming and land use) based on the theoretical treatment which is required for the source water to be potable. The impact of the various fuel sources used to treat water by boiling was also evaluated. The greatest impact was for the use of propane gas followed by charcoal.

Proper hand hygiene is the most effective and efficient method to prevent over 1.3 million deaths annually from diarrheal disease and Acute Respiratory Infections (ARIs). Hand hygiene is also indispensable in achieving the fourth Millennium Development Goal (MDG) to reduce the childhood mortality rate by 2/3rds between 1990 and 2015. Handwashing has been found in a systematic review of studies to reduce diarrhea by 47%#37; and is, thus, capable of preventing a million deaths (Curtis et. al., 2003). Despite this evidence, hand washing rates remain seriously low in the developing world (Scott et al., 2008). This study developed and implemented a comprehensive monitoring strategy of five usage variables (i.e., soap usage, functionality, presence of cleansing agent, ground wetness under station, amount of water in the jug) for 42-64 appropriate technology handwashing stations. These stations were monitored throughout 2011-2013 in two communities in Mali, West Africa. Statistically significant (p < 0.05) results include: 1) a 29%#37; decrease in soap usage from dry (October-June) to rainy seasons (July-September), 2) 35%#37; decrease in stations with presence of cleansing agent between 2011 and 2012, 3) higher station usage for stations in households with higher scores on the Progress out of Poverty Index® , 4) 27%#37; less of the stations far from a water source (35 meters-172 meters away) had a cleansing agent present than stations close to a water source (less than 35 meters) during the rainy season. Station usage also differed based on gender of the handwashing station owner in the two communities where stations built by women were used more in Zeala than those in Nci'bugu. In contrast to Zeala, handwashing stations built by men in Nci'bugu had higher soap usage and usage variable proportions than those built by women. Handwashing training and promotions resulted in 98%#37; of households reporting that they wash their hands with soap in 2012 from 0%#37; in 2011. Altogether, this study designed and implemented a robust monitoring system that succeeded in quantifying handwashing station usage for over two years. In-depth analysis of the data established six sustainability factors for handwashing stations (gender, training, water, seasonality, wealth, and monitoring) that are critical for lasting handwashing behavior change and successful hygiene interventions to save lives.

This thesis has three objectives as follows: 1) to investigate VIP latrine design and establish if the communal school VIP latrines located on the shared campus of Tubman Wilson Institute (TWI) Junior and Senior High School and J.C. Barlee Elementary School were properly designed and constructed, 2) to explore the user preferences and motivations impacting the adoption of these school latrines, and 3) to develop a framework for factors that influence latrine adoption. These goals were formed by the author in response to her Peace Corps experience working at a high school in Zwedru, Liberia from August 2012 to August 2014 and her personal background in appropriate sanitation and environmental engineering. To complete the first thesis objective, the author conducted a detailed literature review and then compared accepted guidelines for VIP latrines to the sanitation facilities located on the TWI campus. The literature review investigated proper design of ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrines, school sanitation guidelines, and recommendations for sanitation in Liberia. The research focus latrines were two blocks of six stall multicompartment alternating twin-pit VIP latrines. The author conducted observations of the communal school latrines in order to compare the design and construction of these specific latrines to accepted criteria and recommendations from literature. It was found that the latrine vent pipes, cover slabs, drop holes, and pit design all appear to be designed and constructed per national Liberian and international recommendations. However, the TWI school latrines do not comply with standards for several other latrine design criteria. The latrine superstructures are built with privacy walls located in front of the boys’ and girls’ stalls and the entranceway doors do not have air gaps. These two features may impair critical odor-controlling air flow from the superstructure through the pit and out the vent pipe. The siting of the school latrines is also inconsistent with guidelines as the latrines are located too close to the classroom building and to the school’s water pump. Finally, the ratio of people to latrines on the shared TWI/J.C. Barlee campus is higher than the recommendation of 20-40 students per latrine, or when necessary 60 students per latrine. The second research objective was to investigate user perceptions of the communal latrines and identify factors that motivate latrine adoption on the Liberian school campus. The design deficiencies identified in the evaluation of thesis objective one were found to impact the user preferences regarding the school latrines. This is apparent from user comments in the surveys that were conducted with 709 participants (students from grades four to twelve, administrators, faculty, and staff) at the study site. User perceptions of the cleanliness, safety, and comfort of the school facilities were varied. For example, 51% of total respondents (n = 709) expressed that the school latrines were dirty or very dirty, while 48% claimed the latrines were clean or very clean. When asked about the safety of the communal latrines, 52% of survey participants said the sanitation facilities were not safe or very unsafe; 47% asserted that the latrines were safe or very safe. Survey participants also had mixed responses about the comfort of the communal sanitation technology: 51% of the 709 survey participants stated that the latrines were not comfortable or very uncomfortable, while 46% declared the facilities were comfortable or very comfortable. The open-ended survey questions allowed respondents to comment on positive and negative aspects of the communal school VIP latrines. Again answers included various responses, but several key themes arose, including smell and odor, latrine construction components, presence of feces in and around the latrines, the use of the facilities by outside community members, and health impacts of latrine use. The final thesis objective was to develop a framework of the factors that impact adoption of communal school latrines. The author originally assumed that user preferences and latrine adoption were directly correlated, but survey results suggest that the two factors may be independently influenced. This is based on the usage rates, 77% total survey participants stating that they use the latrines and 88% of these affirmative respondents explaining that they use the latrines daily, multiple times a week, or weekly. Although these adoption rates are quite high, satisfaction rates for latrine cleanliness, safety, and comfort are merely 50%, as previously described. VIP latrine design factors, like odor control and door construction, and communal sanitation facility characteristics, such as operation and maintenance, may prompt latrine adoption. Individual user traits, such as age, gender, and type and availability of household sanitation technology appear to have a lesser impact on latrine adoption. However, the grade level of the student respondents may have played a role in their responses because of the methods in which the survey was administered and the common practice of cheating. Additional research should be conducted to further understand the factors that impact the adoption of communal sanitation facilities on school campuses. This study accomplished its three main research objectives, yet further research and practical applications must be applied to improve school sanitation in Liberia and worldwide.

Increasing population and extensive urbanization have strained resources around the world, promoting water scarcity and solid waste accumulation. Addressing the issues of access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation in developing countries is challenging due to limited technological and financial resources. Therefore, it is imperative that durable, low-cost, and sustainable technologies are developed to help alleviate these problems. At the same time, the production of solid waste has increased and includes waste tires, which pose a health and environmental hazard. Although efforts have been made to develop new markets for recycled scrap tires, a vast majority are still being stockpiled or landfiled. This study aims to evaluate a water treatment system that addresses the problem of access to safe drinking water and sanitation, while providing a new market for recycled scrap tires. The system, termed ECOL-Mem, utilizes commercially available porous rubber tubing (PRT), which is marketed for drip irrigation purposes. To our knowledge, this is the first time this product has been used in a water treatment system. The PRT is manufactured through a hot extrusion process and contains 65% recycled crumb rubber and a binder (e.g. polyethylene). The proposed configuration simulates a hollow fiber membrane filtration system driven by a vacuum that operates inside-out. The system was first tested using clean water to obtain intrinsic characteristics. It was then tested using bentonite and sludge solutions that simulated impaired source water. For the case of a bentonite solution containing 700 mg/L, 20L of permeate could be obtained in one hour while the total solids removal remained around 20%. In order to improve the water quality, a flocculation-enhanced filtration phase was explored. The flocculant is chitin, a biopolymer that can be derived from waste shellfish. Upon addition of the chitin, between 60% and 70% of total solids removal could be obtained for different feed waters. Although optimization is needed, the PRT system has shown promising results, while providing a technology that targets the needs of developing countries in the areas of safe drinking water, basic sanitation, and solid waste recycling.

This study analyzed the malaria situation in 21 malaria endemic countries in the region of the Americas to assess progress towards achieving Roll Back Malaria objectives (RBM) and Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The study analyzed data from the years 2000 and 2005, which also highlighted various interventions that were underway to improve the malaria situation in the region during this period. Data from the year 2000 were used as a baseline both for RBM objectives as well as for MDGs. Findings of the study indicated the region of the Americas has made progress toward reducing the burden of malaria as a public health burden and this itself is a reflection of progress towards achieving the two global targets. Outcomes of the study also revealed some programmatic strength that might help the region to embark on a more comprehensive, interdisciplinary malaria elimination strategy in the majority of the region’s countries.

Graduate

O agravamento das condições sociais de muitos países motivou 189 países-membros da ONU a aprovarem, em 2000, a Declaração do Milênio, que define os Objetivos de Desenvolvimento do Milênio (ODM). Os valores essenciais necessários para a promoção do bem-estar considerados pelos ODM, que definem os objetivos e as metas, levam em consideração o conceito de desenvolvimento humano da abordagem das capacitações e a Declaração Universal dos Direitos Humanos. Logo, para que haja desenvolvimento, deve haver expansão das oportunidades para que as pessoas possam viver com liberdade e dignidade, a fim de promover a expansão das capacitações fundamentais. Dessa maneira, por meio dos ODM, processo conduzido e monitorado pela ONU, busca-se promover as capacitações fundamentais. Um dos desafios desse processo, e de qualquer processo de desenvolvimento, é a produção de levantamentos estatísticos para o seu acompanhamento. Este estudo estrutura e analisa um indicador social agregado para o Rio Grande do Sul a partir dos ODM. Dada a natureza do indicador, uma das preocupações, além de preservar o seu caráter multidimensional, foi utilizar um sistema de ponderação para que o indicador reflita os pesos de cada dimensão e as variáveis em cada uma delas. Ou seja, levar em consideração que as diferentes dimensões não contemplam a mesma participação na satisfação do bem-estar. Para tal, foram utilizados dados secundários referentes aos ODM, para os 496 municípios gaúchos, coletados em diversas fontes (IBGE, FEE, Datasus, INEP, dentre outros). Inicialmente, através de técnicas estatísticas multivariadas de análise fatorial via componentes principais, foram estimados os pesos. No segundo momento, a partir dos pesos estimados, foi estruturado o indicador, geral e por dimensão, denominado de Índice dos Objetivos de Desenvolvimento do Milênio (IODM). Os resultados indicam que o índice é sustentado por três fatores: o primeiro, corresponde a 39,89% (indicadores de ensino básico, sustentabilidade ambiental e saúde materna); o segundo, com 32,58% (indicadores de pobreza e fome, igualdade entre os sexos e autonomia das mulheres); e o terceiro fator, com 27,53% (indicador de combate às doenças e mortalidade infantil). O IODM por município apresenta uma hierarquização diferente dos indicadores comumente utilizados, que levam em conta o princípio da equiproporcionalidade. Logo, infere-se que esse resultado não se dá somente pelas dimensões que o IODM utiliza, mas, também, pelo sistema de ponderação adotado. / The worsening of many countries´ social conditions urged 189 UN member-countries to approve, in 2000, the United Nations Millenium Declaration that establishes the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The essential values - which the MDGs consider necessary to promote well-being and establish the targets and goals - take into consideration the Capability Approach and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights´s concept of human development. Thus, to enhance development, there has to be an increase of opportunities so that people can live in freedom and dignity, and the expansion of the fundamental capabilities can take place. Accordingly, through the MDGs, a process led and monitored by UN, the fundamental capabilities have been fostered. One challenge of that process - and of any development process - is to create statistic surveys for its follow up. The present study organizes and analyses a social indicator added to Rio Grande do Sul as from the MDGs. Given the indicator´s nature, one of the concerns, besides maintaining its multidimensional feature, was that of using a weighting system so that the indicator can show the weights and variables of each dimension. That means taking into consideration that different dimensions do not participate equally in achieving well-being. Therefore, MDGs´ secondary data were used for 496 municipalities of Rio Grande do Sul, collected from several sources (IBGE, FEE, Datasus, INEP, among others). Firstly, weights were estimated by means of various statistic techniques, factor analysis through principal components. Secondly, the general and dimensional indicator - called Millennium Development Goals Index (MDGsI) - was established, as from the estimated weighs. The results show that the Index is supported by three factors: the first one corresponds to 39,89% (indicators of Primary Schooling, Environmental sustainability, and Maternal health); the second one, with 32,58% (indicators of Poverty and hunger, Gender equality and Women empowerment) and the third factor, with 27,53% (indicator of Combat of diseases and Child mortality). The MDsI per municipality shows a hierarchy which is different from the commonly used indicators that consider the principle of equiproportionality. So, one can infer that this result does not only occur due to the dimension that the MDSI uses, but also due to the weighting system used here.

O agravamento das condições sociais de muitos países motivou 189 países-membros da ONU a aprovarem, em 2000, a Declaração do Milênio, que define os Objetivos de Desenvolvimento do Milênio (ODM). Os valores essenciais necessários para a promoção do bem-estar considerados pelos ODM, que definem os objetivos e as metas, levam em consideração o conceito de desenvolvimento humano da abordagem das capacitações e a Declaração Universal dos Direitos Humanos. Logo, para que haja desenvolvimento, deve haver expansão das oportunidades para que as pessoas possam viver com liberdade e dignidade, a fim de promover a expansão das capacitações fundamentais. Dessa maneira, por meio dos ODM, processo conduzido e monitorado pela ONU, busca-se promover as capacitações fundamentais. Um dos desafios desse processo, e de qualquer processo de desenvolvimento, é a produção de levantamentos estatísticos para o seu acompanhamento. Este estudo estrutura e analisa um indicador social agregado para o Rio Grande do Sul a partir dos ODM. Dada a natureza do indicador, uma das preocupações, além de preservar o seu caráter multidimensional, foi utilizar um sistema de ponderação para que o indicador reflita os pesos de cada dimensão e as variáveis em cada uma delas. Ou seja, levar em consideração que as diferentes dimensões não contemplam a mesma participação na satisfação do bem-estar. Para tal, foram utilizados dados secundários referentes aos ODM, para os 496 municípios gaúchos, coletados em diversas fontes (IBGE, FEE, Datasus, INEP, dentre outros). Inicialmente, através de técnicas estatísticas multivariadas de análise fatorial via componentes principais, foram estimados os pesos. No segundo momento, a partir dos pesos estimados, foi estruturado o indicador, geral e por dimensão, denominado de Índice dos Objetivos de Desenvolvimento do Milênio (IODM). Os resultados indicam que o índice é sustentado por três fatores: o primeiro, corresponde a 39,89% (indicadores de ensino básico, sustentabilidade ambiental e saúde materna); o segundo, com 32,58% (indicadores de pobreza e fome, igualdade entre os sexos e autonomia das mulheres); e o terceiro fator, com 27,53% (indicador de combate às doenças e mortalidade infantil). O IODM por município apresenta uma hierarquização diferente dos indicadores comumente utilizados, que levam em conta o princípio da equiproporcionalidade. Logo, infere-se que esse resultado não se dá somente pelas dimensões que o IODM utiliza, mas, também, pelo sistema de ponderação adotado. / The worsening of many countries´ social conditions urged 189 UN member-countries to approve, in 2000, the United Nations Millenium Declaration that establishes the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The essential values - which the MDGs consider necessary to promote well-being and establish the targets and goals - take into consideration the Capability Approach and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights´s concept of human development. Thus, to enhance development, there has to be an increase of opportunities so that people can live in freedom and dignity, and the expansion of the fundamental capabilities can take place. Accordingly, through the MDGs, a process led and monitored by UN, the fundamental capabilities have been fostered. One challenge of that process - and of any development process - is to create statistic surveys for its follow up. The present study organizes and analyses a social indicator added to Rio Grande do Sul as from the MDGs. Given the indicator´s nature, one of the concerns, besides maintaining its multidimensional feature, was that of using a weighting system so that the indicator can show the weights and variables of each dimension. That means taking into consideration that different dimensions do not participate equally in achieving well-being. Therefore, MDGs´ secondary data were used for 496 municipalities of Rio Grande do Sul, collected from several sources (IBGE, FEE, Datasus, INEP, among others). Firstly, weights were estimated by means of various statistic techniques, factor analysis through principal components. Secondly, the general and dimensional indicator - called Millennium Development Goals Index (MDGsI) - was established, as from the estimated weighs. The results show that the Index is supported by three factors: the first one corresponds to 39,89% (indicators of Primary Schooling, Environmental sustainability, and Maternal health); the second one, with 32,58% (indicators of Poverty and hunger, Gender equality and Women empowerment) and the third factor, with 27,53% (indicator of Combat of diseases and Child mortality). The MDsI per municipality shows a hierarchy which is different from the commonly used indicators that consider the principle of equiproportionality. So, one can infer that this result does not only occur due to the dimension that the MDSI uses, but also due to the weighting system used here.

O agravamento das condições sociais de muitos países motivou 189 países-membros da ONU a aprovarem, em 2000, a Declaração do Milênio, que define os Objetivos de Desenvolvimento do Milênio (ODM). Os valores essenciais necessários para a promoção do bem-estar considerados pelos ODM, que definem os objetivos e as metas, levam em consideração o conceito de desenvolvimento humano da abordagem das capacitações e a Declaração Universal dos Direitos Humanos. Logo, para que haja desenvolvimento, deve haver expansão das oportunidades para que as pessoas possam viver com liberdade e dignidade, a fim de promover a expansão das capacitações fundamentais. Dessa maneira, por meio dos ODM, processo conduzido e monitorado pela ONU, busca-se promover as capacitações fundamentais. Um dos desafios desse processo, e de qualquer processo de desenvolvimento, é a produção de levantamentos estatísticos para o seu acompanhamento. Este estudo estrutura e analisa um indicador social agregado para o Rio Grande do Sul a partir dos ODM. Dada a natureza do indicador, uma das preocupações, além de preservar o seu caráter multidimensional, foi utilizar um sistema de ponderação para que o indicador reflita os pesos de cada dimensão e as variáveis em cada uma delas. Ou seja, levar em consideração que as diferentes dimensões não contemplam a mesma participação na satisfação do bem-estar. Para tal, foram utilizados dados secundários referentes aos ODM, para os 496 municípios gaúchos, coletados em diversas fontes (IBGE, FEE, Datasus, INEP, dentre outros). Inicialmente, através de técnicas estatísticas multivariadas de análise fatorial via componentes principais, foram estimados os pesos. No segundo momento, a partir dos pesos estimados, foi estruturado o indicador, geral e por dimensão, denominado de Índice dos Objetivos de Desenvolvimento do Milênio (IODM). Os resultados indicam que o índice é sustentado por três fatores: o primeiro, corresponde a 39,89% (indicadores de ensino básico, sustentabilidade ambiental e saúde materna); o segundo, com 32,58% (indicadores de pobreza e fome, igualdade entre os sexos e autonomia das mulheres); e o terceiro fator, com 27,53% (indicador de combate às doenças e mortalidade infantil). O IODM por município apresenta uma hierarquização diferente dos indicadores comumente utilizados, que levam em conta o princípio da equiproporcionalidade. Logo, infere-se que esse resultado não se dá somente pelas dimensões que o IODM utiliza, mas, também, pelo sistema de ponderação adotado. / The worsening of many countries´ social conditions urged 189 UN member-countries to approve, in 2000, the United Nations Millenium Declaration that establishes the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The essential values - which the MDGs consider necessary to promote well-being and establish the targets and goals - take into consideration the Capability Approach and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights´s concept of human development. Thus, to enhance development, there has to be an increase of opportunities so that people can live in freedom and dignity, and the expansion of the fundamental capabilities can take place. Accordingly, through the MDGs, a process led and monitored by UN, the fundamental capabilities have been fostered. One challenge of that process - and of any development process - is to create statistic surveys for its follow up. The present study organizes and analyses a social indicator added to Rio Grande do Sul as from the MDGs. Given the indicator´s nature, one of the concerns, besides maintaining its multidimensional feature, was that of using a weighting system so that the indicator can show the weights and variables of each dimension. That means taking into consideration that different dimensions do not participate equally in achieving well-being. Therefore, MDGs´ secondary data were used for 496 municipalities of Rio Grande do Sul, collected from several sources (IBGE, FEE, Datasus, INEP, among others). Firstly, weights were estimated by means of various statistic techniques, factor analysis through principal components. Secondly, the general and dimensional indicator - called Millennium Development Goals Index (MDGsI) - was established, as from the estimated weighs. The results show that the Index is supported by three factors: the first one corresponds to 39,89% (indicators of Primary Schooling, Environmental sustainability, and Maternal health); the second one, with 32,58% (indicators of Poverty and hunger, Gender equality and Women empowerment) and the third factor, with 27,53% (indicator of Combat of diseases and Child mortality). The MDsI per municipality shows a hierarchy which is different from the commonly used indicators that consider the principle of equiproportionality. So, one can infer that this result does not only occur due to the dimension that the MDSI uses, but also due to the weighting system used here.