Artificial light surrounds us in a manifold of shapes. It is mainly utilized for illumination, but also for graphical communication of complex and evolving messages and information, among other things. It can be generated in different ways with incandescent lamps and fluorescent tubes constituting two common examples. Organic solid state light-generation technologies, which boast advantages such as solution processability, thin and flexible form factors, and large versatility, are modern additions to the field. But regardless of the means of generation, whenever light is to be used to communicate information, as signage or displays, it needs to be patterned. Unfortunately patterning is often complicated and expensive from a fabrication point of view, or renders the devices inefficient. To bridge the gap between present technologies and the need for low-cost and low-complexity patterned light emitters, it is important to develop new device architectures and/or fabrication procedures. In this thesis we show that patterned light emission can be attained from solution processable bilayer light-emitting electrochemical cells (LECs), in which the bilayer stack comprises an electrolyte and an organic semiconductor as the first and second layer, respectively. We investigate a subtractive direct-write approach, in which electrolyte is displaced and patterned by the contact motion of a thin stylus, as well as an additive inkjet-patterning technique. Both result in electroluminescent patterns, e.g., light-emitting sketches and microscopic signage with high pixel density. But they can also build macroscopic patterned regions with homogeneous emission depending on the design of electrolyte features. Using an in-operando optical microscopy study we have investigated the operational physics and some limiting factors of the bilayer LECs. More specifically we find that the electrolyte film homogeneity is a key property for high optical quality, and that the emitting region is defined by the location of the interfaces between electrolyte, anode, and organic semiconductor. We observe that the cationic diffusion length is less than one micrometer in our employed organic semiconductors, and rationalize the localized emission by cationic electric double-layer formation at the cathode, and the electronically insulating electrolyte at the anode. To date, the presented luminescent signage devices feature high-resolution patterns, in both pixelated and line-art form, and show great robustness in terms of fabrication and material compatibility. Being LECs, they have the potential for truly low-cost solution processing, which opens up for new applications and implementations. However, these first reports on patterned bilayer LECs leave plenty of room for improvements of the optical and electronic characteristics. For instance, if the optoelectronic properties of the devices were better understood, a rational design of microscopic electrolyte features could provide for both more efficient LECs, and for more homogeneous light emission from the patterned regions.

Les structures optiques diffractives sous forme d’hologramme de sécurité sont largement employées contre la falsification et la contrefaçon.Elles sont présentent sur les billets de banque, les documents de voyage et d’identité, etc. Leurs techniques de fabrication sont de plus en plus accessibles, augmentant les risques de fraudes et la concurrence sur le marché des hologrammes de sécurité. Pour endiguer les fraudes et gagner des parts de marché, il faut innover. Ces travaux de thèse de doctorat s’articulent autour du développement de structures optiques diffractives multiéchelles innovantes. Ces structures diffractives multiéchelles sont la combinaison de structures diffractives microscopiques permettant la mise en forme de la lumière incidente avecdes structures nanoscopiques qui permettent la création d’effets colorés. Ces travaux accordent une grande place au développement de la technique de photolithographie multiniveaux par écriture directe massivement parallèle. Ils abordent également le développement d’un modèle hybride permettant de simuler physiquement le comportement des structures diffractives (notamment de nos structures multiéchelles) en temps réel. Ce rendu en temps réel est possible grâce à l’utilisation du processeur graphique (GPU) au travers d’OpenGL et des programmes Shader, ainsi qu’avec l’utilisation de données précalculées. Le développement de ces structures multiéchelles permet la création et la commercialisation de nombreux nouveaux effets visuels, ce qui participe aux doubles objectifs de contrer les fraudes et de gagner en part de marché. / Diffractive optical structures on the fon of security holograms are widely used against forgery and counterfeiting. They are present on banknotes, travel and identity documents, etc. Their manufacturing techniques are becoming more and more accessible, increasing the risk of fraud and competition in the security hologram market. To stem fraud and gain marketshare, hologram procedures must innovate continously. This Ph.d focuses on the developmentof innovative multi-scale diffractive optical structures. These multi-scale diffractive structures result from combination of microscopic diffractive structures that shape the incident light and nanoscopic structures that generate colored effects. This work places emphasis on the development of the massively parallel-direct-write greyscale photolithography fabrication process. We also discuss the development of an hybrid model for physically simulating the behaviour of diffractive structures (especially our multiscale structures) in real time. This real time rendering is possible thanks to the use of the graphical processor unit (GPU) through OpenGL and Shader programs, as well as the use of precomputed data. The development of these multiscale structures has led to the creation and commercialisation of many new visual effects and contributed to the dual objectives of counter fraud and gain market share.

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The most commonly known macro scale probing devices are simply comprised of metallic leads used for measuring electrical signals. On the other hand, micromachined probing devices are realized using microfabrication techniques and are capable of providing very fine, micro/nano scale interaction with matter; along with a broad range of applications made possible by incorporating MEMS sensing and actuation techniques. Micromachined probes consist of a well-defined tip structure that determines the interaction space, and a transduction mechanism that could be used for sensing a change, imparting external stimuli or manipulating matter. Several micromachined probes intended for biological and nanotechnology applications were fabricated, characterized and tested. Probes were developed under two major categories. The first category consists of Micro Electromagnetic Probes for biological applications such as single cell, particle, droplet manipulation and neuron stimulation applications; whereas the second category targets novel Scanning Probe topologies suitable for direct nanopatterning, variable resolution scanning probe/dip-pen nanolithography, and biomechanics applications. The functionality and versatility of micromachined probes for a broad range of micro and nanotechnology applications is successfully demonstrated throughout the five different probes/applications that were studied. It is believed that, the unique advantages of precise positioning capability, confinement of interaction as determined by the probe tip geometry, and special sensor/actuator mechanisms incorporated through MEMS technologies will render micromachined probes as indispensable tools for microsystems and nanotechnology studies.