The research summarized in this thesis focuses on directed evolution and enzyme mechanism studies of two aldolases: 2-deoxyribose-5-phosphate aldolase (DERA) and fructose-6-phosphate aldolase (FSA). Aldolases are nature’s own catalysts for one of the most fundamental reactions in organic chemistry: the formation of new carbon-carbon bonds. In biological systems, aldol formation and cleavage reactions play central roles in sugar metabolism. In organic synthesis, aldolases attract great attention as environmentally friendly alternative for the synthesis of polyhydroxylated compounds in stereocontrolled manner. However, naturally occurring aldolases can hardly be used directly in organic synthesis mainly due to their narrow substrate scopes, especially phosphate dependency on substrate level. Semi-rational directed evolution was used in order to investigate the possibility of expanding the substrate scope of both DERA and FSA and to understand more about the relationship between protein structure and catalytic properties. The first two projects focus on the directed evolution of DERA and studies of the enzyme mechanism. The directed evolution project aims to alter the acceptor substrate preference from phosphorylated aldehydes to aryl-substituted aldehydes. Effort has been made to develop screening methods and screen for variants with desired properties.  In the study of enzyme mechanism where enzyme steady state kinetic studies were combined with molecular dynamic simulations, we investigated the role of Ser238 and Ser239 in the phosphate binding site and the possible connection between enzyme dynamics and catalytic properties. The other two projects focus on the directed evolution of FSA and the development of a new screening assay facilitating screening for FSA variants with improved activity in catalyzing aldol reaction between phenylacetaldehyde and hydroxyacetone. The new assay is based on a coupled enzyme system using an engineered alcohol dehydrogenase, FucO DA1472, as reporting enzyme. The assay has been successfully used to identify a hit with 9-fold improvement in catalytic efficiency and to determine the steady state kinetic parameters of wild-type FSA as well as the mutants. The results from directed evolution illustrated the high degree malleability of FSA active site. This opens up possibilities to generate FSA variants which could utilize both aryl-substituted donor and acceptor substrates.

Les virus oncolytiques sont une nouvelle classe d’agents thérapeutiques pouvant être une alternative au traitement des cancers. Plusieurs virus oncolytiques sont actuellement développés en clinique, néanmoins de nombreuses améliorations sont à apporter afin de créer une nouvelle classe de virus plus efficaces et moins toxiques. Le premier objectif de cette thèse a été d’améliorer la spécificité tumorale du virus de la vaccine via le ciblage de l’antigène MUC1 présenté à la surface des cellules tumorales. Pour cela un virus recombinant présentant à sa surface un fragment d’anticorps (scFv) dirigé contre l’antigène tumoral MUC1 a été construit et produit. Les tests in vitro n’ont toutefois pas permis de mettre en évidence un ciblage spécifique du virus recombinant. Un deuxième aspect de cette thèse a été de tester le potentiel oncolytique de virus de la famille des Poxviridae. Durant ce travail de thèse, les capacités oncolytiques de douze poxvirus, appartenant à 8 genres différents, ont été étudiés. Leurs effets sur la prolifération de cellules cancéreuses humaines ont été évalués. Les virus caractérisés par un effet oncolytique élevé ont été, par la suite, modifiés et armés par ingénierie virale afin d’augmenter leur efficacité. La dernière partie de cette thèse a été consacrée à la génération et la sélection de virus chimériques basées sur la méthode d’évolution dirigée. Cette méthode est utilisée pour mimer le processus naturel de sélection évolutif. Appliqué à la virothérapie oncolytique, ce procédé nous a permis de générer un nouveau virus oncolytique chimérique caractérisé par un potentiel anti-cancéreux amélioré. En résumé, cette thèse a permis, par des techniques d’ingénierie virale, par un criblage de nouveaux virus et par la méthode d’évolution dirigée, de créer et de sélectionner une nouvelle génération de poxvirus oncolytiques présentant une activité thérapeutique accrue avec un profil de toxicité atténué et pouvant être utilisés dans diverses indications thérapeutiques. / Oncolytiques viruses are a new class of therpeutic agents which could be an alternative for cancer treatment. Currently, several oncolytic viruses are evaluated in clinical trial, nevertheless improvements are needed to create a new class of more efficiente and less toxic viruses. The first objective of this thesis was to improved the vaccinia virus specificity through the targeting of the tumor-associated antigen MUC1. To address this goal, a recombinant virus expressing an scFv targeting the MUC1-protein was engineered and produced. However, in vitro, the demonstration of a specific targeting by the recombinant virus was not possible. A second aspect of this thesis work was to evaluate the oncolytic potential of Poxviridae family viruses. Oncolytic capacities of twelve viruses, belonging to eight genera, were evaluated. Their impact on human cancer cells was tested. In order to increase their efficacity, viruses with the highest oncolytic capacities were then modified and armed by genetic engineering. The third part of this work was devoted to the generation of chimeric viruses based on directed evolution process. This methodology is used to mimic the natural process of evolutionary selection. Applied to oncolytic virotherapy, this technique allowed the generation of a new chimeric oncolytic virus caracterised by an enhanced antitumoral potential. In summary, this thesis has allowed, through viral engineering, poxviruses screening and directed evolution methodology, the creation and selection of a new generation of oncolytic poviruses. These viruses demonstrate an increased therpeutic activity and greatest safety profil enabling their application in several therapeutic indication.

abstract: This dissertation shows that the central conceptual feature and explanatory motivation of theories of evolutionary directionality between 1890 and 1926 was as follows: morphological variation in the developing organism limits the possible outcomes of evolution in definite directions. Put broadly, these theories maintained a conceptual connection between development and evolution as inextricably associated phenomena. This project develops three case studies. The first addresses the Swiss-German zoologist Theodor Eimer's book Organic Evolution (1890), which sought to undermine the work of noted evolutionist August Weismann. Second, the American paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope's Primary Factors (1896) developed a sophisticated system of inheritance that included the material of heredity and the energy needed to induce and modify ontogenetic phenomena. Third, the Russian biogeographer Leo Berg's Nomogenesis (1926) argued that the biological world is deeply structured in a way that prevents changes to morphology taking place in more than one or a few directions. These authors based their ideas on extensive empirical evidence of long-term evolutionary trajectories. They also sought to synthesize knowledge from a wide range of studies and proposed causes of evolution and development within a unified causal framework based on laws of evolution. While being mindful of the variation between these three theories, this project advances "Definitely Directed Evolution" as a term to designate these shared features. The conceptual coherence and reception of these theories shows that Definitely Directed Evolution from 1890 to 1926 is an important piece in reconstructing the wider history of theories of evolutionary directionality. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Biology 2014

abstract: Synthetic biology is a novel method that reengineers functional parts of natural genes of interest to build new biomolecular devices able to express as designed. There is increasing interest in synthetic biology due to wide potential applications in various fields such as clinics and fuel production. However, there are still many challenges in synthetic biology. For example, many natural biological processes are poorly understood, and these could be more thoroughly studied through model synthetic gene networks. Additionally, since synthetic biology applications may have numerous design constraints, more inducer systems should be developed to satisfy different requirements for genetic design. This thesis covers two topics. First, I attempt to generate stochastic resonance (SR) in a biological system. Synthetic bistable systems were chosen because the inducer range in which they exhibit bistability can satisfy one of the three requirements of SR: a weak periodic force is unable to make the transition between states happen. I synthesized several different bistable systems, including toggle switches and self-activators, to select systems matching another requirement: the system has a clear threshold between the two energy states. Their bistability was verified and characterized. At the same time, I attempted to figure out the third requirement for SR – an effective noise serving as the stochastic force – through one of the most widespread toggles, the mutual inhibition toggle, in both yeast and E. coli. A mathematic model for SR was written and adjusted. Secondly, I began work on designing a new genetic system capable of responding to pulsed magnetic fields. The operators responding to pulsed magnetic stimuli in the rpoH promoter were extracted and reorganized. Different versions of the rpoH promoter were generated and tested, and their varying responsiveness to magnetic fields was recorded. In order to improve efficiency and produce better operators, a directed evolution method was applied with the help of a CRISPR-dCas9 nicking system. The best performing promoters thus far show a five-fold difference in gene expression between trials with and without the magnetic field. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Bioengineering 2016

The aim of this thesis is to investigate aspects of molecular evolution and enzyme engineering using the experimental evolution of Tobacco Etch Virus cysteine protease (TEV) as a model. I map key features of the local fitness landscape and characterise how they affect details of enzyme evolution. In order to investigate the evolution of core active site machinery, I mutated the nucleophile of TEV to serine. The differing chemical properties of oxygen and sulphur force the enzyme into a fitness valley with a >104-fold activity reduction. Nevertheless, directed evolution was able to recover function, resulting in an enzyme able to utilise either nucleophile. High-throughput screening and sequencing revealed how the array of possible beneficial mutations changes as the enzyme evolves. Potential adaptive mutations are abundant at each step along the evolutionary trajectory, enriched around the active site periphery. It is currently unclear how seemingly neutral mutations affect further adaptive evolution. I used high-throughput directed evolution to accumulate neutral variation in large, evolving enzyme populations and deep sequencing to reconstruct the complex evolutionary dynamics within the lineages. Specifically I was able to observe the emergence of robust enzymes with improved mutation tolerance whose descendants overtake later populations. Lastly, I investigate how evolvability towards new substrate specificities changed along these neutral lineages, dissecting the different determinants of immediate and long-term evolvability. Results demonstrate the utility of evolutionary understanding to protease engineering. Together, these experiments forward our understanding of the molecular details of both fundamental evolution and enzyme engineering.

Les virus adéno-associés (AAVs) font partie des vecteurs les plus efficaces pour le transfert de gène, en particulier dans la rétine. Ils sont utilisés aussi bien pour des études biologiques que pour la thérapie génique. Malgré cela, il reste encore des barrières qui limitent leur utilisation. Nous proposons ici d’utiliser une technique d’évolution dirigée pour surmonter ces barrières et améliorer l’efficacité des AAVs en tant que vecteurs de gènes. Dans un premier temps, nous avons créé trois librairies virales hautement diversifiées basées sur l’AAV2. Ces librairies étaient constituées de capsides modifiées aléatoirement pour leur donner de nouvelles propriétés. Nous avons ensuite réalisé deux types de sélections. D’une part, nous avons sélectionné nos librairies virales dans le système visuel de la souris pour obtenir une capside capable de transport axonal antérograde trans-synaptique afin de pouvoir étudier simultanément l’activité et la connectivité de réseaux neuronaux. Cette sélection a fortement convergée vers une capside nommée AAV2-7mD, dont la capacité de transport axonal antérograde trans-synaptique est plus efficace que les AAVs 1 et 2. D’autre part, nous avons sélectionné nos librairies virales directement sur des explants de maculas de rétine humaine afin découvrir une capside capable de traverser la membrane limitante interne de la macula humaine. Ceci a pour but d’avoir un vecteur efficace pour des traitements de thérapie génique par voie intra-vitréenne. Cette librairie a commencé à converger mais nous sommes toujours en attente du dernier cycle de sélection. Nous traitons donc dans cette thèse des résultats de deux évolutions dirigées sur l’AAV2 afin de créer des vecteurs de gènes plus performants dans le système visuel. / Adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) are among the most efficient vectors for gene transfer, particularly in the retina. They are used for asking biological questions as well as for gene therapy. Nonetheless, some barriers are still restraining their use. Here, we used a directed evolution method to overcome those barriers and improve the efficiency of AAVs for gene transfer. First, we created three highly diversified viral libraries based on AAV2. Those libraries were based on randomly modified capsids displaying new properties. Then, we did two types of selections. On one hand, we selected our libraries in the retinofugal pathway in order to obtain a capsid with enhanced axonal anterograde trans-synaptic transport capacities, so we could study simultaneously the activity and the connectivity of neuronal networks between the retina and the brain. This selection converged strongly toward a new capsid, named AAV2-7mD, with enhanced axonal anterograde trans-synaptic transport capacities compared to AAV1 and AAV2. On the other hand, we directly selected our viral libraries on human macular explants, to select capsids capable of crossing the human macular inner limiting membrane. Such a capsid would be very useful for retinal gene therapy via intravitreal injections. This library started to converge but we are still waiting to complete the last cycle of selection. In this thesis we discuss the results of these two directed evolution studies on AAV2 to create enhanced gene delivery vectors in the visual system.

Les organophosphorés (OPs) sont des composés neurotoxiques qui sont largement utilisés comme pesticides. Cette utilisation intensive a conduit à une importante pollution des sols et des effluents agricoles et sont retrouvés jusque dans les aliments. Ces pesticides sont responsables de 300 000 morts à travers le monde. Les OPs ont également été développés comme agents neurotoxiques de guerre tel que le sarin. Actuellement, il n’existe pas de méthode de décontamination externe satisfaisante pour dégrader les OPs, c’est pourquoi l’utilisation d’enzymes est une stratégie attractive. Parmi les enzymes capables de dégrader les OPs, les phosphotriestérases (PTEs) sont les plus actives mais sont peu stables ce qui limite leurs applications. Les enzymes hyperthermostables ont donc été considérées. Ainsi l’enzyme SsoPox, isolée de l’archée Sulfolobus solfataricus ayant une activité lactonase et une activité de promiscuité phosphotriestérase, a été plus particulièrement étudiée. SsoPox est extrêmement robuste mais son activité phosphotriestérase est en revanche plus faible. Une stratégie d’ingénierie protéique a été réalisée afin d’obtenir un compromis entre l’activité d'une PTE et la stabilité de SsoPox. En utilisant les similarités structurales entre ces deux enzymes, une base de données mutationnelle a été réalisée pour transférer le site actif hautement performant d’une PTE dans la structure hyperstable de SsoPox. Cette stratégie a permis d’obtenir des variants de SsoPox améliorés jusqu’à 2000 fois. L'efficacité de ces variants a été démontrée in vivo chez un modèle animal, la planaire, permettant d'améliorer la survie ainsi que la mobilité et la capacité de régénération. / Organophosphates (OPs) are neurotoxic compounds widely used as pesticides. Over the years, utilization of OP led to a considerable environmental contamination of soils and agricultural wastewaters, this pollution is furthermore a major health issue as these insecticides can be found in food. OP are highly toxic and are responsible for 300,000 deaths in the world every year. OPs were also developed as chemical warfare nerve agents such as sarin. Currently, no satisfying method for external decontamination is available, therefore bioremediation with enzymes is highly appealing. Among OP degrading enzymes, phosphotriesterases (PTEs) are the most active biocatalysts but are poorly stable what hinders their potential for bioremediation. Hyperthermostable enzymes from extreme environments were thus considered to circumvent this limitation. In particular, SsoPox isolated from the archaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus, displaying a lactonase activity and a promiscuous phosphotriesterase activity was deeply investigated. SsoPox is extremely robust but its activity for OP degradation is from far lower. A protein engineering strategy was started in order to reach a compromise between PTE activity and SsoPox robustness. Using structural similarities between PTEs and SsoPox, a mutational database was designed in order to transfer the highly performant active site of PTE into the hyperstable scaffold of SsoPox. This strategy led to variants displaying up to 2,000-fold increase against OPs as compared to wild-type enzyme. The variants efficiency was demonstrated in vivo using an original animal model planarian, allowed to enhance survival rate as well as mobility and regeneration capacity.

Precise engineering of genomes holds great promise to advance our understanding of gene function and biotechnological applications. DNA double strand breaks are repaired via imprecise non-homologous end joining repair or via precise homology-directed repair processes. Therefore, we could harness the DSBs to engineer the genomes with a variety of genetic outcomes and with singlebase- level precision. The major barrier for genome engineering was the generation of site-specific DNA DSBs. Programmable DNA enzymes capable of making a complete and site-specific cut in the genome do not exist in nature. However, these enzymes can be made in in vitro as chimeric fusions of two modules, a DNA binding module and a DNA cleaving module. The DNA cleaving module can be programmed to bind to any user-defined sequence and the DNA cleaving module would generate DSBs in the target sequence. These enzymes called molecular scissors include zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs) and transcriptional activator like effector nucleases (TALENs). The programmability of these enzymes depends on protein engineering for DNA binding specificity which may be complicated, recourse intensive and suffer from reproducibility issues. Recently, clustered regularly interspaced palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/ CRISPR associated endonuclease 9 (Cas9) an adaptive immune system of bacterial and archaeal species has been developed for genome engineering applications. CRISPR/Cas9 is an RNA-guided DNA endonuclease and can be reprogrammed through the engineering of single guide RNA molecule (sgRNA). CRISPR/Cas9 activity has been shown across eukaryotic species including plants. Although the engineering of CRISPR/Cas9 is quite predictable and reproducible, there are many technological challenges and improvements that need to be made to achieve robust, specific, and efficient plant genome engineering. Here in this thesis, I developed a number of technologies to improve specificity, delivery and expression and heritability of CRISRP/Cas9-modification in planta. Moreover, I used these technologies to answer basic questions to understand the molecular underpinning of the interplay between splicing and abiotic stress. To improve Cas9 specificity, I designed and constructed a chimeric fusion between catalytically dead Cas9 (dCas9) and FOKI catalytic DNA cleaving domain (dCas9.FoKI). This synthetic chimeric fusion enzyme improved Cas9 specificity which enable precision genome engineering. Delivery of genome engineering reagents into plant cells is quite challenging, I developed a virus-based system to deliver sgRNAs into plants which facilitates plant genome engineering and could bypass the need for tissue culture in engineering plant genomes. To improve the expression of the CRISPR/Cas9 machinery in plant species, I developed a meiotically-driven expression of CRISPR/Cas9 which improved genome editing and heritability of editing in seed progeny, thereby facilitating robust genome engineering applications. To understand the molecular basis of the interplay between splicing stress and abiotic stress, I used the CRISPR/Cas9 machinery to engineer components of the U2snRNP complex coupled which chemical genomics to understand the splicing stress regulation in response to abiotic stress conditions. Finally, I harnessed the technological improvements and developments I have achieved with CRISPR/Cas9 system to develop a directed evolution platform for targeted trait engineering which expands and accelerates trait discovery and engineering of plant species resilient to climate change conditions.

Proteases have a fundamental role in regulating diverse biological processes and are important in the biotechnological and medical fields. Therapeutic proteases have great potential but have been limited due to the lack of high throughput protein engineering methods. In this thesis, a method was developed for high throughput screening of protease libraries based on competitive growth in selective media. A proof-of-principle method using the Tobacco Etch Virus protease (TEVp) was developed. TEVp and the reporter consisting of an aggregation-prone peptide amyloidbeta42 (Aβ42) genetically fused to the antibiotic resistance enzyme chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT), were co-expressed in Escherichia coli. The CAT enzyme makes the cells resistant to Chloramphenicol (Cml). Two different reporters containing different cleavage sites situated between the Aβ42 and CAT were used for which TEVp has distinguishable proteolysis efficiencies. Cleavage of the fusion protein would give the cell a growth advantage in media with Cml since the CAT enzyme would avoid misfolding due to Aβ42. The method demonstrates that cells with different substrates can be differentiated based on their survival. A 100-fold enrichment of clones expressing the efficient substrate was also demonstrated from a background of 1:1000 of clones expressing the inefficiently cleaved substrate. Moreover, a semi-rational TEVp library was successfully cloned and co-electroporated with the reporter into E. coli for future selection.

No description available.