With the development of electricity transmission systems, more and more insulators have been used in the system to isolate the high potential conductors from the earth. In order to secure the reliability of power system, it is necessary to understand the ageing mechanism of the insulators. A model for energy (heat) transfer between low current discharges and insulation surfaces has been built in this project which contributes to the understanding and prediction of insulator ageing. Within the experimental work, the temperature of low current discharges under different conditions has been measured with the “Best-fit” method. The temperature was found to vary between 1200 K and 2300 K with current level, sub cycle duration, gap length, electrode conductivity and polarity of DC discharges. The discharge temperature increases with the growth of current and sub cycle duration by means of the elevation of energy, while the discharge temperature is hotter between salt water droplets than between tap water droplets even though the former has a lower energy (I^2 Rt). The temperature is insensitive to a change of gap length and a positive discharge has a higher temperature than an equivalent negative one. The specific measurement shows the middle part is hotter than the electrode areas. Within the simulation work, the presence of water droplet(s) on the insulation surface concentrates and enhances the electric field over the surface which increases the risk of partial discharge. For practical insulators, this means the core, rather than the sheds, suffers more from discharges between water droplets as they are aligned to the electric field. This highlights the importance of keeping the core dry. The simulation of heat transfer between low current discharges insulation surface was achieved using COMSOL software. The simulated results show that the surface temperature increases rapidly in the first few seconds and arrives at a thermal equilibrium state after 20 seconds of discharge, which meets the experimental observation. The insulation surface temperature distribution under AC discharge is symmetric and the surface centre has the highest temperature which decreases towards the water droplets. In DC, the surface around the cathode is the hottest and the anode area is the coldest.

Ce travail porte sur la caractérisation optique et électrique ainsi que la modélisation mathématique du contournement d’isolateurs pollués en tenant compte de la forme de tension appliquée, de la répartition ainsi que de la constitution chimique du dépôt polluant. Sous tension de choc de foudre (1,2/50μs), la morphologie des décharges ainsi que les courants associés dépendent de la tension (forme, amplitude, polarité),de la répartition de la pollution et de sa conductivité. Les vitesses moyennes de la décharge mesurées dépendent de la polarité appliquée à la pointe et de la conductivité de la pollution. Le temps critique correspondant aux conditions critiques est de l’ordre de 9/10 du temps total de contournement quelles que soient la polarité de la tension et la conductivité de la pollution. La constitution chimique de la couche de pollution a peu d’effet sur la tension critique contrairement aux courants critiques. Les valeurs des constantes caractéristiques n et N sont fonction de la nature chimique des dépôts et de la polarité de la tension. Le modèle élaboré montre que les constantes caractéristiques de la décharge n et N sont des paramètres dynamiques et dépendent des éléments du circuit électrique équivalent du système et des paramètres thermiques de la décharge. Les relations des conditions critiques du contournement développé relient les paramètres électriques et thermiques du circuit équivalent et la condition de propagation de la décharge. L’application de ce modèle, pour différentes formes de tension et pour plusieurs types de pollution, donne des résultats satisfaisants. L’hypothèse selon laquelle la colonne de la décharge ne contient que de la vapeur d’eau et de l’air constitue une bonne approximation des grandeurs critiques. Sous tension de choc de foudre, les courants et les tensions critiques dépendent de la configuration de la pollution et de la polarité de la tension. Le courant circule à travers une section effective de la pollution. L’introduction de la notion d’épaisseur critique effective et son application au calcul des grandeurs critiques donne de bons résultats pour les cas de figures étudiés. L’épaisseur effective du dépôt est proportionnelle la résistivité de la pollution et dépend dela configuration de la pollution et de la polarité de la pointe. Dans le cas de dépôt de pollution discontinue et/ou non uniforme, les conditions de propagation des décharges sont locales et leurs paramètres caractéristiques varient selon la configuration et la conductivité du dépôt ainsi que la polarité de la tension appliquée. Le modèle développé pour ce cas de figure donne de bons résultats. / This work aimed on optical and electrical characterization and mathematical modeling of flashover of polluted insulators, taking into account the applied voltage waveform, the distribution and chemical composition of pollutant deposit. Under lightning impulse voltage (1.2 /50μs), the morphology of the discharge and the associated currents depend on voltage (shape, amplitude, polarity), the distribution ofpollution and its conductivity. The measured average velocity of the discharge depends on the polarity applied to the tip and the pollution conductivity. The critical time corresponding to the critical conditions is about 9/10 of total flashover duration regardless of the polarity of the voltage and the pollution conductivity. The chemical composition of the pollution layer has little effect on the critical voltage unlike the critical currents. The values of the characteristic constants n and N depend on the chemical nature of the deposits and the voltage polarity.The developed model shows that the discharge constant characteristics n and N are dynamic parameters and depend on the elements of the equivalent electrical circuit system and thermal parameters of the discharge. The developed relationships of critical conditions of flashoverlink the electrical parameters and thermal equivalent circuit and the propagation condition of the discharge. This approach allows us tounderstand the effect of the chemical constitution of pollution on the values of n and N. The application of this model for various voltage waveforms and for several types of pollution, gives satisfactory results. The assumption that the column of the discharge contains only watervapor and air is a good approximation of the critical conditions. Under lightning impulse voltage, the current circulate into a effective section of the pollution surface. The introduction of the concept of critical effective thickness of pollution and its application to the calculation ofcritical parameters gives good results compared with the experimental values. We have also shown that the effective thickness of the depositis proportional to the resistivity of the pollution and depends on voltage polarity and pollution configuration. In the case of discontinuous deposit of pollution and / or non-uniform propagation conditions of discharges are local and their characteristic parameters vary dependingon the configuration and the conductivity of the deposit and the polarity of the applied voltage. The developed model gives good results

My diploma thesis is focused on a comparison of direct-current and high frequency (15-80 kHz) electric discharge, which generates non-thermal plasma in water solution of sodium chloride. Mainly current-voltage and Lissajous charts are discussed in the first part of this thesis. These charts describe different discharge phases: electrolysis, bubble formation, discharge breakdown and discharge regular operation in a pin-hole of a dielectric barrier. Influence of frequency, electrolyte conductivity, thickness of the diaphragm (or length of the capillary) and pin-hole diameter on discharge breakdown and bubble generation was studied, too. Measurements were realized in a polycarbonate reactor with total volume of 110 ml, which was divided by a changeable polyacetal insulating wall. This wall divided the reactor into two approximately equal spaces with one stainless steel planar electrode in each part. The Shapal-MTM ceramic discs (thickness of 0.3–1.5 mm and diameter of the central pin-hole of 0.3-0.9 mm) were mounted in the centre of the insulating wall. Initial conductivity of sodium chloride solution was chosen within the interval of 100900 S/cm. The second part of my thesis compares an influence of the direct-current (DC) and high frequency (HF) power sources on physical solution properties (conductivity, pH and temperature) and generation of hydrogen peroxide. A plasma reactor with total volume of 4 l and with mixing set up was divided into two equal spaces with one planar platinum electrode in each part. Diaphragm with thickness of 0.6 mm and pin-hole diameter of 0.6 mm was installed in the middle of the separating wall. Experiment was held at discharge operation of 45 W for 40 minutes with both power sources. Detection of hydrogen peroxide was realised by using a titanium reagent forming a yellow complex, which was analysed by absorption spectroscopy. If HF discharge power is plotted as a function of applied frequency, exponential decrease of frequency with increasing power can be observed. Higher breakdown voltage is necessary for thicker dielectric barriers, on the other hand for bigger diameter of the pin-hole lower breakdown voltage and higher power is needed in DC as well as in HF regime. Breakdown voltage is decreased by the increasing conductivity in both regimes; due to more charge carriers in the higher conductivity lower breakdown voltage is needed. However frequency in HF regime and DC discharge power increases. HF discharge power is decreased by the increasing conductivity. Solution conductivity and temperature are increased by initial conductivity value in both discharge regimes. Solution pH drops to acidic conditions when HF or DC positive regime is applied due to the generation of reactive species and electrolysis (in DC regime). However solution becomes alkaline when DC negative regime is applied. Concentration of hydrogen peroxide is produced linearly when HF or DC negative regime is applied and it depends on initial solution conductivity.

Tesis por compendio / [ES] La tecnología de bombas de calor se ha vuelto estratégica en Europa, está extendiéndose rápidamente y se planea que reemplace las calderas de gas en un futuro cercano. Sin embargo, aún enfrenta desafíos, como encontrar refrige-rantes nuevos viables y altamente eficientes, y mejorar aún más el rendimiento del sistema. Para abordar este último problema, han surgido las bombas de calor de velocidad variable que prometen reducir el consumo anual e incremen-tar el confort adaptando la potencia suministrada a las necesidades cambiantes. Esta tecnología se está implementando ya, pero carece de una metodología estandarizada para diseñar y seleccionar sus componentes. Esta tesis tiene como objetivo establecer pautas de diseño generales para la selección y diseño de componentes de bombas de calor de velocidad variable, y ofrecer información valiosa que se pueda traducir en herramientas para asistir en la simulación, diseño, selección y detección de fallas en estos dispositivos. El contenido del estudio se puede dividir en tres áreas temáticas: En una primera parte, se estudian los compresores de velocidad variable. El compresor es el primer componente que se selecciona en una bomba de calor, modula la capacidad y es el principal consumidor de energía. Sin embargo, no existen metodologías bien establecidas para modelar su comportamiento. En esta parte, se realizan ensayos de caracterización de compresores de velocidad variable y sus inversores para comprender su comportamiento y proporcionar correlaciones compactas para modelar su rendimiento. En la segunda parte, se propone una metodología para dimensionar los intercambiadores de calor en bombas de calor de velocidad variable. Nor-malmente, se diseñan para una potencia fija y temperaturas de trabajo constan-tes, sin embargo, en las bombas de velocidad variable, la capacidad y las tempe-raturas de trabajo fluctúan significativamente con el tiempo. En esta parte, se estudia la evolución del rendimiento de los intercambiadores de calor con la capacidad (velocidad del compresor) y se propone una metodología de selec-ción/dimensionamiento que considera la evolución de la capacidad requerida y de las condiciones climáticas externas a lo largo del año. Por último, se evalúa la circulación del aceite en las bombas de calor de velocidad variable. Gestionar la lubricación en los compresores de velocidad variable es un problema típico ya que, para tener suficiente lubricación a bajas velocidades, el compresor termina bombeando un exceso de aceite a altas velo-cidades. En esta parte se estudia la evolución de las tasas de circulación de acei-te con la velocidad y se analiza teóricamente su efecto en el rendimiento de la bomba de calor. / [CA] La tecnologia de les bombes de calor s'ha tornat estratègica a Europa, s'està estenent ràpidament i es preveu que substituïsca les calderes de gas en un futur pròxim. Tanmateix, encara s'enfronta a desafiaments com trobar refrigerants nous viables i altament eficients, i millorar encara més el rendiment del sistema. Per abordar aquest darrer problema, han sorgit les bombes de calor de velocitat variable que prometen reduir el consum anual i incrementar el confort adaptant la potència subministrada a les necessitats variables. Aquesta tecnologia ja s'es-tà implementant, però manca d'una metodologia estandarditzada per dissenyar i seleccionar els seus components. Aquesta tesi té com a objectiu establir pautes de disseny generals per a la se-lecció i disseny de components de bombes de calor de velocitat variable, i oferir informació valuosa que es pugui traduir en eines per ajudar en la simulació, disseny, selecció i detecció de fallades d'aquests dispositius. El contingut de l'estudi es pot dividir en tres àrees temàtiques: En una primera part, s'estudien els compressors de velocitat variable. El compressor és el primer component seleccionat d'una bomba de calor, modula la capacitat i és el principal consumidor d'energia. Tanmateix, no hi ha metodo-logies ben establides per modelar el seu comportament. En aquesta part, es realitzen assajos de caracterització de compressors de velocitat variable i els seus inversors per comprendre el seu comportament i proporcionar correlaci-ons compactes per modelar el seu rendiment. En la segona part, es proposa una metodologia per dimensionar els inter-canviadors de calor en bombes de calor de velocitat variable. Normalment, es dissenyen per a una potència fixa i temperatures de treball constants, no obs-tant això, en les bombes de velocitat variable, la capacitat i les temperatures de treball fluctuen significativament amb el temps. En aquesta part, s'estudia l'evo-lució del rendiment dels intercanviadors de calor amb la capacitat (velocitat del compressor) i es suggereix una metodologia de selecció/dimensionament que considera l'evolució de les càrregues i de les condicions climàtiques externes al llarg de l'any. Finalment, s'avalua la circulació de l'oli a les bombes de calor de velocitat variable. Gestionar la lubricació als compressors de velocitat variable és un pro-blema típic, ja que per tenir suficient lubricació a baixes velocitats, el compres-sor acaba bombejant un excés d'oli a altes velocitats. En aquesta part s'estudia l'evolució de les taxes de circulació d'oli amb la velocitat i s'analitza teòricament el seu efecte en el rendiment de la bomba de calor. / [EN] Heat pump technology has become strategic in Europe, it is rapidly spread-ing, and it is planned to replace gas boilers in the near future. However, they still have challenges to solve, such as finding new viable and highly efficient refriger-ants and further increasing their system performance. For this latter issue, vari-able-speed heat pumps arise, which claim to decrease annual consumption and increase comfort by adapting the delivered capacity to the changing loads. This technology is being implemented but lacks a standardized methodology to de-sign and select its components. This thesis aims to establish comprehensive design guidelines for selecting and designing variable-speed heat pump components and give insights that can translate into valuable information and tools for engineers to assist them in the pump simulation, design, selection and fault detection. The content of the study can be divided into three thematic areas: In the first part, variable-speed compressors are studied. The compressor is the first selected heat pump component; it modulates the capacity and is the primary energy consumer. However, there are no well-established methodolo-gies to model their behavior. In this part, extensive testing of variable-speed compressors and their inverters was carried out to understand their behavior and to provide compact correlations to model their performance. The second part proposes a methodology to size heat exchangers for variable-speed heat pumps. Typically, they are designed for a fixed capacity and constant working temperatures. However, the capacity and working tempera-tures fluctuate significantly overtime in variable-speed pumps. In this part, the performance evolution of heat exchangers with capacity is studied, and a meth-odological selection/sizing technique is proposed that considers the evolution of external climatic conditions and loads over the year. Lastly, the oil circulation in variable-speed heat pumps is assessed. Man-aging lubrication in variable-speed compressors is a typical issue, as a design valid for sufficient lubrication at low compressor speeds will end up pumping excess oil at high speeds. In this final part, the evolution of oil circulation rates with speed is studied, and its effect on heat pump performance is theoretically analyzed. / I am indebted to the Spanish and European governments for their financial support with the grant PRE2018-083535, which made this research possible. Their commitment to academic excellence and research advancement has been crucial in successfully completing this thesis. / Ossorio Santiago, RJ. (2024). Modelling of Heat Pumps Working with Variable-Speed Compressors [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/203104 / Compendio