Cette thèse porte sur la comparaison de la polarisation dans les distributions de revenu et est organisée en quatre chapitres. L’importance d’étudier la polarisation provient des risques de tensions sociales qui peuvent survenir dans une économie polarisée en plus de l’effritement de sa classe moyenne et les conséquences néfastes sur le développement économique. Le premier chapitre procède à une revue des différents travaux qui traitent de la polarisation. Certains de ces travaux établissent les fondements pour la mesure de la polarisation et la distinction avec la mesure des inégalités tandis que d’autres analysent les différentes manières de considérer les distances et les disparités entre individus et la façon dont la polarisation peut être mesurée dans une perspective économique, sociale et socio-économique. Ce premier chapitre distingue cinq types de polarisation : la polarisation du revenu, la bi-polarisation, la polarisation sociale, la polarisation socio-économique et la polarisation multidimensionnelle. Le deuxième chapitre prend en compte les deux composantes de la polarisation que sont l’aliénation et l’identification pour développer une méthode de dominance stochastique en polarisation. Cette méthode est appliquée pour comparer la polarisation entre 16 pays et les USA pris comme pays de référence, en utilisant les données du Luxembourg Income Study (LIS). Certains pays comme le Danemark, la Norvège ou la Suisse affichent moins de polarisation que les USA tandis que les USA affichent moins de polarisation que l’Espagne, l’Italie et la Grèce. Le troisième chapitre considère uniquement la composante aliénation dans les indices de polarisation et développe une approche pour comparer la taille de la classe moyenne dans deux distributions de revenu. La comparaison des distributions de revenu est établie pour une classe d’indices de polarisation indépendants de la composante identification et dont le développement conduit à l’introduction de surfaces de dominance en aliénation. Une distribution possédant une grande surface de dominance en aliénation est plus concentrée dans les extrêmes et possède une classe moyenne de petite importance. Une application numérique permet de comparer l’effritement de la classe moyenne des distributions de revenus de 22 pays à l’aide des données du LIS. Il en ressort que les USA ont une classe moyenne plus importante que le Mexique et le Pérou mais moins importante que le reste des pays. Le quatrième et dernier chapitre s’intéresse à la dimension identification dans les indices de polarisation et dérive une classe d’indices pouvant être utilisés pour mesurer le degré d’homogénéité dans une distribution de revenu. Le développement aboutit à des courbes de dominance qui peuvent être utilisées pour déterminer si l’homogénéité ou le degré de similarité est plus élevé dans une distribution que dans une autre. Cette méthodologie est utilisée pour comparer l’homogénéité des distributions de revenus de 11 pays en utilisant les données du LIS. Cette application montre que les USA sont plus homogènes que le Mexique et le Pérou mais moins homogènes que tous les autres pays. / This thesis addresses the problem of polarization comparison and is organized in four chapters. A motivation to study polarization stems from the risk of social unrest that may arise in a polarized society along with the disappearance of its middle class and the negative consequences on the economic development. The first chapter reviews the basic conceptual foundations for the measurement of polarization, the origins of those foundations, how polarization is distinct from inequality and other ways of considering distances and differences across individuals, and how polarization can be measured in an economic, a social, and a hybrid socioeconomic perspective. It distinguishes five different types of polarization: income polarization, bi-polarization, social polarization, socio-economic polarization and multidimensional polarization. The second chapter develops a method of stochastic dominance in polarization accounting separately for the two basic components of polarization, namely alienation and identification. The methodology establishes a robust comparison of polarization based on the variations of alienation and identification thresholds and is applied to data from seventeen countries taking the USA as a benchmark to which are compared the other 16 countries. Data are drawn from the Luxembourg Income Study database. As a result, stochastic dominance can hold in either direction since some countries like Denmark, Norway or Switzerland stochastically dominate the USA and the USA stochastically dominates other countries like Spain, Italy or Greece. The third chapter shows how to compare the size of the middle class in income distributions using only the alienation component of polarization. We derive a class of polarization indices where the antagonism function is constant in identification. The comparison of distributions using an index from this class motivates the introduction of an alienation dominance surface, which is a function of an alienation threshold. We first prove that a distribution has a large alienation component in polarization compared to another if it always has a larger dominance surface regardless of the value of the alienation threshold. Then, we show that the distribution with a large dominance surface is more concentrated in the tails and has a smaller middle class than the other distribution. An empirical illustration with the distributions of twenty-two countries from the Luxembourg Income Study database shows that the USA has a higher middle class than Mexico and Peru and a smaller middle class than the rest of the countries. The fourth and last chapter develops a methodology to compare the degree of homogeneity of two income distributions using only the identification component of polarization. This development leads to identification dominance curves and derives first-order and higher-order stochastic dominance conditions. Dominance curves are used to determine whether identification, homogeneity, or similarity of individuals is greater in one distribution than in another for general classes of polarization indices and ranges of possible identification thresholds. Our methodology is illustrated by comparing pairs of distributions of eleven countries drawn from the Luxembourg Income Study database. This application shows that the USA is more homogeneous than Mexico and Peru and less homogeneous than the other countries.

Nous étudions l’évolution des salaires horaires au Canada au cours des trois dernières décennies à l’aide de données confidentielles du recensement et de l’Enquête nationale sur les ménages. Nous trouvons que le coefficient de variation des salaires chez les travailleurs à temps plein a presque doublé entre 1980 et 2010. La croissance rapide du 99,9e centile est le principal facteur expliquant cette hausse. Les changements dans la composition de la population active expliquent moins de 25% de la hausse de l’inégalité. Toutefois, des effets de composition expliquent la majorité de la hausse du salaire horaire moyen sur la période, alors que les salaires stagnent pour un niveau de compétence donné. / We consider changes in the distribution of hourly compensation in Canada over the last three decades using confidential census data and the recent National Household Survey. We find that the coefficient of variation of wages among full-time workers has almost doubled between 1980 and 2010. The rapid growth of the 99.9th percentile is the main driver of that increase. Changes in the composition of the workforce explain less than 25% of the rise in wage inequality. However, composition changes explain most of the increase in average hourly compensation over those three decades, while wages stagnate within skill groups.

Protocole d'entente entre l'Université Laval et l'Université du Québec en Outaouais / Plusieurs études et sources médiatiques font état d’une pénurie de main-d’oeuvre (MO) dans la profession des sciences infirmières. On prédit même que la situation n’est pas prête à s’améliorer puisqu’avec le vieillissement de la population, la demande pour les services de soins infirmiers ne peut qu’augmenter. Étant donné cette pénurie, on pourrait supposer que, dans une perspective de maximisation du revenu salarial, les infirmières en poste auraient une plus forte intensité de travail que les employés des autres secteurs de l’économie, sinon au moins la même intensité de travail. Pourtant, cela ne semble pas être le cas. C’est dans cette optique que s’intègre le premier article de cette thèse. Il vise à faire la lumière sur le marché du travail des infirmières en cherchant à saisir la nature et l’ampleur de la pénurie. Il traite de l’efficacité et des distorsions du marché du travail des infirmières à travers des dimensions classiques: soit l’offre, la demande, le salaire et les différentes institutions en présence. Un des résultats principaux de cette étude est qu’il existe différents concepts de pénurie. Il est important d’en identifier le type pour mieux cibler la façon d’intervenir en termes de politiques publiques. Compte tenu de la pénurie de MO infirmière et du fait que cette dernière n'a pas travaillé plus d'heures par semaine que les travailleurs similaires dans d'autres secteurs de l'économie, cela implique que l'objectif de maximisation du revenu peut être poursuivi en cherchant des taux de rémunération plus élevés. Avec un taux de syndicalisation élevé, une telle stratégie est plausible. Cependant, la littérature suggère également que les infirmières font face à un marché du travail caractérisé par le monopsone (ou oligopsone), c'est-à-dire qu'elles offrent leur travail dans un seul hôpital (ou quelques hôpitaux) dans une région donnée. Dans un tel contexte, ces hôpitaux peuvent offrir un salaire inférieur à celui que nous aurions vu dans un marché concurrentiel, i.e. qu’on s’attend à ce que les salaires horaires soient plus faibles dans les hôpitaux à forte concentration de marché, ce qui peut être source de pénurie régionale. Le second article cherche à vérifier cette hypothèse en utilisant les fichiers de micro-données de l’Enquête sur la population active (EPA) de Statistiques Canada pour les années 2010, 2011 et 2012. La méthode utilisée est l’analyse multi-niveaux. Les résultats empiriques n'appuient pas le modèle de monopsone pour expliquer la pénurie de main-d'oeuvre infirmière: il n'y a pas de relation statistiquement significative entre les salaires des infirmières et la part de marché des hôpitaux. Cela suggère que l'explication de la pénurie de main-d'oeuvre infirmière doit être recherchée ailleurs. Les hôpitaux (comme employeurs) ne pratiquent pas de discrimination salariale basée sur la part de marché, en dépit de leur petit nombre. Cela suppose que le fort taux de syndicalisation pourrait jouer un rôle compensatoire sur ce marché en aplatissant la structure des salaires. Cette situation est typique d’un système centralisé de fixation des salaires (lorsque le processus de détermination des salaires se produit au niveau du secteur plutôt qu'au niveau de l'entreprise). Ce système, supposément prépondérant au Canada, répond au principe d’équité mais risque d’être une source de pénurie s’il ne s’ajuste pas aux réalités régionales. Un tel système peut décourager la concurrence, entraver l'allocation efficace des ressources dans certaines régions et créer une pénurie régionale. Le mécanisme de fixation des salaires et les comparaisons régionales dans quelques provinces constituent l’objectif du 3e article. Ce dernier jette un regard plus approfondi sur la façon dont les institutions se sont organisées pour arriver aux conventions collectives en vigueur sur le marché du travail des infirmières au Canada. La théorie des disparités régionales compensatoires des salaires (DRCS) dans un marché concurrentiel est le cadre utilisé pour analyser la question de la centralisation des salaires et tester l’hypothèse de l’uniformisation de ceux-ci. Les résultats indiquent que le processus de fixation des salaires des infirmières est plutôt centralisé, mais la structure des salaires ne peut pas être décrite comme étant uniforme. Ceci signifie qu’il y a des disparités régionales de salaires, mais apparemment elles ne sont pas assez grandes pour enrayer la pénurie de main-d’oeuvre. Par exemple, des régions métropolitaines de recensement comme Montréal et Toronto ont des DRCS inférieures à leur moyenne provinciale respective. Mots clés: Salaires, Infirmières, Pénurie, Monopsone, Capital humain, Institutions, Recherche quantitative, Modèle multi-niveaux, Canada, Provinces, Régions, Hôpitaux, Conventions collectives, Écarts salariaux. / Several studies and media sources report a shortage of labour in the nursing profession and indicate that the situation is not likely to improve as demand for nursing services can only increase due to the aging of the population. Given this shortage, it could be assumed that, in a perspective of maximizing wage income, employed nurses would work more hours than employees in other sectors of the economy, if not at least have the same work intensity . Yet, that does not seem to be the case. The first article of this thesis aims to shed light on the nursing labor market by seeking to understand the nature and scope of the shortage. It discusses the efficiency and distortions of the nurses' labor market via the traditional dimensions of supply, demand, wages and the various institutions involved. One of the main findings of this study is that there are different concepts of shortage. It is important to identify the type to better target how to intervene in terms of public policies. Given the shortage of nurses and the fact that the latter did not work more hours per week than similar workers in other sectors of the economy, this implies that the goal of maximizing income can be pursued by seeking higher rates of pay. With a high unionization rate, such a strategy is plausible. However, the literature also suggests that nurses face a labor market characterized by monopsony (or oligopsony), that is, they offer their work in a single hospital (or a few hospitals) in a given region. In such a context, these hospitals may offer a lower wage than we would have seen in a competitive market; that is hourly wages are expected to be lower in hospitals with high market concentration; which can be source of regional shortage. The second article attempts to verify this assumption using Statistics Canada's Labor Force Survey (LFS) microdata files for the years 2010, 2011 and 2012. The method used is multilevel analysis. Empirical results do not support the monopsony model in explaining nursing shortage: there is no statistically significant relationship between nurse wages and hospital market share. This suggests that the explanation for the nursing shortage needs to be explored elsewhere. Hospitals (as employers) do not discriminate on the basis of market share, despite their small numbers. This suggests that the strong union could play an offsetting role in this market and flatten the wage structure. This situation is typical of a centralized wage setting system (where the wage determination process occurs at the sector level rather than at the enterprise level). Such a system, which is supposedly predominant in Canada, is in line with the principle of equity, but it could be at the origin of the shortage if it does not adjust to regional realities. It can discourage competition, hinder the efficient allocation of resources in certain regions and create a regional shortage. The wage-setting mechanism and the regional comparisons in some provinces are the objective of the third article. The latter takes a closer look at how institutions and stakeholders are organized to come up with collective agreements for nurses in Canada. The theory of Standardized Regional Wage Differentials (SRWD) in a competitive market is the framework used to analyze this issue and to test the wage uniformity hypothesis. The results indicate that the process of wage setting for nurses is rather centralized, but the wage structure cannot be described as flat or uniform. This means that there are regional differences in wages, but apparently they are not large enough to halt the labor shortage. For example, Census Metropolitan Areas such as Montreal and Toronto have SRWD below their respective provincial average. Keywords: Wages, Nurses, Shortage, Monopsony, Human Capital, Institutions, Quantitative Research, Multilevel Model, Canada, Provinces, Regions, Hospitals, Collective Agreement, Pay Gap.

Ce mémoire cherche à évaluer l’impact d’une réduction d’une année de scolarité sur les salaires. Plusieurs travaux de recherche ont montré l’importance des formations universitaires sur l’employabilité et les salaires. Des scientifiques ont également investigué sur la question des écarts salariaux. La plupart d’entre eux s’appuient sur des théories économiques, et tentent de répondre à cette problématique par les différents niveaux de formation scolaire au sein d’un groupe d’individus, ou encore par le nombre d’années d’expérience sur le marché du travail. Leurs résultats distincts mettent en évidence la difficulté à expliquer intégralement les différences de salaires. Dans ce mémoire, nous nous appuyons sur la réforme du système éducatif québécois survenu en 1967, pour évaluer l’impact d’une réduction d’une année de scolarité sur les salaires. Suite à l’actualité socio-éducative qui prévalait à cette époque, le gouvernement Lesage a été amené à prendre en considération le rapport fourni par la commission Parent sur la réforme du système éducatif. Nous nous intéressons donc de façon particulière au passage du cours classique au Cégep. À la base, le cours classique était de huit ans et sanctionné par un baccalauréat ès arts. Avec la création du Cégep, le nombre total d’années d’étude avant l’université a été réduit à sept. Ceci a occasionné en 1968 l’entrée simultanée de deux cohortes d’étudiants en première année d’université. Pour réaliser cette étude, nous utilisons les données de la division des opérations de Statistique Canada, sur le Recensement de la population de 1981. À partir d’une approche de Regression Discontinuity design, nous confirmons qu’une année de scolarité en moins affecte négativement les salaires, de façon significative. Cet effet est de 18% dans notre meilleure spécification. / This report aims to evaluate the impact of a reduction of one year of schooling on future wages. Several research studies have shown the importance of university training on employability and wages. Scientists have also investigated the issue of wage differentials. Most of them rely on economic theories, and try to explain this issue by the different levels of education by differences in educational attainment within a group of individuals, or by the number of years of experience in labor market. Their distinct results highlight the difficulty in explaining wage differences as a whole. In this master’s thesis, we rely on the reform of Quebec’s education system in 1967, to evaluate the impact of an extra year of schooling on remuneration. Following the current socio-educational situation prevailing at that time, the Lesage government was led to take into consideration the report provided by the Parent commission on the valuation of the education system. We are particularly interested in the graduation from classical courses to CEGEP. Initially, the classical course was eight years old and culminated in a Bachelor of Arts degree. The creation of the CEGEP reduced the number of years of study before university to seven. This led in 1968 to the simultaneous entry of two cohorts of students in the first year of university. This study uses data from the Statistics Canada operations division on the 1981 Census of Population. Based on a Regression Discontinuity design approach, we have confirmed that one less year of schooling negatively affects Wages, significantly. This effect is 18% in our best specification.

Ce texte cherche à déterminer si à un niveau de productivité identique un écart salarial entre les hommes et les femmes immigrants québécois fortement scolarisés s’observe. À cette fin, un modèle de discrimination statistique est utilisé qui postule qu’il est plus coûteux pour un employeur d’évaluer la productivité d’une femme et que le signal de productivité se précise plus rapidement chez les hommes. Ces deux hypothèses permettent de formuler plusieurs prédictions théoriques portant sur l’écart salarial entre les sexes. Celles-ci sont vérifiées à l’aide de données obtenues par l’Enquête sur les immigrants de la catégorie des travailleurs qualifiés. Les résultats suggèrent que la situation des immigrants occidentaux corrobore partiellement les prédictions théoriques, tandis que celle des immigrants provenant des pays en développement les rejette.

This thesis focuses on the industry wage differentials, rent-sharing and the gender wage gap. I empirically investigate: i) the interaction between inter-industry wage differentials and the gender wage gap in six European countries, ii) how rent sharing interacts with the gender wage gap in the Belgian private sector and iii) the existence of inter-industry wage differentials in Belgium, through the unobserved ability hypothesis.<p><p>The first chapter is devoted to the analysis of the interaction between inter-industry wage differentials and the gender wage gap in six European countries, i.e. Belgium, Denmark, Ireland, Italy, Spain, and the U.K. To do so, we have relied on a unique harmonised matched employer-employee data set, the 1995 European Structure of Earnings Survey. As far as we know, this paper is the first to analyse with recent techniques, on a comparable basis, and from a European perspective: i) inter-industry wage differentials by gender, ii) gender wage gaps by industry, and iii) the contribution of industry effects to the overall gender wage gap. It is also one of the few, besides Kahn (1998), to analyse for both sexes the relationship between collective bargaining characteristics and the dispersion of industry wage differentials. <p>Empirical findings show that, in all countries and for both sexes, wage differentials exist between workers employed in different sectors, even when controlling for working conditions, individual and firm characteristics. We also find that the hierarchy of sectors in terms of wages is quite similar for male and female workers and across countries. Yet, the apparent similarity between male and female industry wage differentials is challenged by standard statistical tests. Indeed, simple t-tests show that between 43 and 71% of the industry wage disparities are significantly different for women and men. Moreover, Chow tests indicate that sectoral wage differentials are significantly different as a group for both sexes in all countries. Regarding the dispersion of the industry wage differentials, we find that results vary for men and women, although not systematically nor substantially. Yet, the dispersion of industry wage differentials fluctuates considerably across countries. It is quite large in Ireland, Italy and the U.K. and relatively moderate in Belgium, Denmark and Spain. For both sexes, results point to the existence of a negative and significant relationship between the degree of centralisation of collective bargaining and the dispersion of industry wage differentials.<p>Furthermore, independently of the country considered, results show that more than 80% of the gender wage gaps within industries are statistically significant. The average industry gender wage gap ranges between -.18 in the U.K. and -.11 in Belgium. This means that on average women have an inter-industry wage differential of between 18 and 11% below that for men. Yet, correlation coefficients between the industry gender wage gaps across countries are relatively small and often statistically insignificant. This finding suggests that industries with the highest and the lowest gender wage gaps vary substantially across Europe.<p>Finally, results indicate that the overall gender wage gap, measured as the difference between the mean log wages of male and female workers, fluctuates between .18 in Denmark and .39 in the U.K. In all countries a significant (at the .01 level) part of this gap can be explained by the segregation of women in lower paying industries. Yet, the relative contribution of this factor to the gender wage gap varies substantially among European countries. It is close to zero in Belgium and Denmark, between 7 and 8% in Ireland, Spain and the U.K. and around 16% in Italy. Differences in industry wage premia for male and female workers significantly (at the .05 level) affect the gender wage gap in Denmark and Ireland only. In these countries, gender differences in industry wage differentials account for respectively 14 and 20% of the gender wage gap. To sum up, findings show that combined industry effects explain around 29% of the gender wage gap in Ireland, respectively 14 and 16% in Denmark and Italy, around 7% in the U.K. and almost nothing in Belgium and Spain. <p>In conclusion, our results emphasize that the magnitude of the gender wage gap as well as its causes vary substantially among the European countries. This suggests that no single policy instrument will be sufficient to tackle gender pay inequalities in Europe. Our findings indicate that policies need to be tailored to the very specific context of the labour market in each country.<p><p>The second chapter examines investigates how rent sharing interacts with the gender wage gap in the Belgian private sector. Empirical findings show that individual gross hourly wages are significantly and positively related to firm profits-per-employee even when controlling for group effects in the residuals, individual and firm characteristics, industry wage differentials and endogeneity of profits. Our instrumented wage-profit elasticity is of the magnitude 0.06 and it is not significantly different for men and women. Of the overall gender wage gap (on average women earn 23.7% less than men), results show that around 14% can be explained by the fact that on average women are employed in firms where profits-per-employee are lower. Thus, findings suggest that a substantial part of the gender wage gap is attributable to the segregation of women is less profitable firms. <p><p>The third and final chapter contributes to the understanding of inter-industry wage differentials in Belgium, taking advantage of access to a unique matched employer-employee data set covering the period 1995-2002. Findings show the existence of large and persistent wage differentials among workers with the same observed characteristics and working conditions, employed in different sectors. The unobserved ability hypothesis may not be rejected on the basis of Martins’ (2004) methodology. However, its contribution to the observed industry wage differentials appears to be limited. Further results show that ceteris paribus workers earn significantly higher wages when employed in more profitable firms. The instrumented wage-profit elasticity stands at 0.063. This rent-sharing phenomenon accounts for a large fraction of the industry wage differentials. We find indeed that the magnitude, dispersion and significance of industry wage differentials decreases sharply when controlling for profits.<p> / Doctorat en Sciences économiques et de gestion / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

In the first chapter of this thesis, we investigate the impact of human capital and wage structure on the gender pay in a panel of European countries using a newly available and appropriate database for cross-country comparisons and a comparable methodology for each country. <p><p>Our first question is :What role do certain individual characteristics and choices of working men and women play in shaping the cross-country differences in the gender pay gap? What is the exact size of the gender pay gap using the “more appropriate” database available for our purpose? Giving that there are mainly only two harmonized data-sets for comparing gender pay gap throughout Europe: the European Community Household Panel (ECHP) and the European Structure of Earning Survey (ESES). Each database having its shortages: the main weakness of the ECHP is the lack of perfect reliability of the data in general and of wages in particular. However the main advantage of this database is the panel-data dimension and the information on both households and individuals. The data of the ESES is, on the contrary, of a very high standard but it only covers the private sector and has a cross-sectional dimension. Furthermore only few countries are currently available :Denmark, Belgium, Spain, Ireland and Italy. <p>We use the European Structure of Earning Survey (ESES) to analyse international differences in gender pay gaps in the private sector based on a sample of five European economies: Belgium, Denmark, Ireland, Italy and Spain. Using different methods, we examine how wage structures, differences in the distribution of measured characteristics and occupational segregation contribute to and explain the pattern of international differences. Furthermore, we take account of the fact that indirect discrimination may influence female occupational distributions. We find these latter factors to have a significant impact on gender wage differentials. However, the magnitude of their effect varies across countries.<p><p>In the second chapter, we analyse the persistence of the gender pay differentials over time in Europe and better test the productivity hypothesis by taking into account unobserved heterogeneity. <p><p>Our second question is :What is the evolution of the pay differential between men and women over a period of time in Europe? And what is the impact of unobserved heterogeneity? <p>The researcher here provides evidence on the effects of unobserved individual heterogeneity on estimated gender pay differentials. Using the European Community Household Panel (ECHP), we present a cross-country comparison of the evolution of unadjusted and adjusted gender pay gaps using both cross-section and panel-data estimation techniques. The analysed countries differ greatly with respect to labour market legislation, bargaining practices structure of earnings and female employment rates. On adjusting for unobserved heterogeneity, we find a narrowed male-female pay differential, as well as significantly different rates of return on individual characteristics. In particularly, the adjusted wage differential decreases by 7 per cent in Belgium, 14 per cent in Ireland, between 20-30 per cent Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Spain and of 41 per cent and 54 per cent in the UK and in Denmark respectively. <p><p>In the third chapter, we investigate causes of the gender pay gap beyond the gender differences in observed and unobserved productive characteristics or simply the sex. Explanations of the gender pay gap may be the penalty women face for having children. Obviously, the motherhood wage penalty is relevant to larger issues of gender inequality given that most women are mothers and that childrearing remains a women’s affair. Thus, any penalty associated with motherhood but not with fatherhood affects many women and as such contributes to gender inequalities as the gender pay gap. Furthermore, the motherhood wage effect may be different along the wage distribution as women with different earnings may not be equal in recognising opportunities to reconcile their mother’s and earner’s role. This brings us to our third question. <p><p>Our third question is :What is the wage effect for mothers of young children in the household? And does it vary along the wage distribution of women?<p>This chapter provides more insight into the effect of the presence of young children on women’s wages. We use individual data from the ECHP (1996-2001) and both a generalised linear model (GLM) and quantile regression (QR) techniques to estimate the wage penalty/bonus associated with the presence of children under the age of sixteen for mothers in ten EU Member States. We also correct for potential selection bias using the Heckman (1979) correction term in the GLM (at the mean) and a selectivity correction term in the quantile regressions. To distinguish between mothers according to their age at the time of their first birth, wage estimations are carried out, separately, for mothers who had their first child before the age of 25 (‘young mothers’) and mothers who had their first child after the age of 25 (‘old mothers’). Our results suggest that on average young mothers earn less than non-mothers while old mothers obtain a gross wage bonus in all countries. These wage differentials are mainly due to differences in human capital, occupational segregation and, to a lesser extent, sectoral segregation between mothers and non-mothers. This overall impact of labour market segregation, suggests a “crowding” explanation of the family pay gap – pay differential between mothers and non-mothers. Nevertheless, the fact that we still find significant family pay gaps in some countries after we control for all variables of our model suggests that we cannot reject the “taste-based” explanation of the family gap in these countries. Our analysis of the impact of family policies on the family pay gap across countries has shown that parental leave and childcare policies tend to decrease the pay differential between non-mothers and mothers. Cash and tax benefits, on the contrary, tend to widen this pay differential. Sample selection also affects the level of the mother pay gap at the mean and throughout the wage distribution in most countries. Furthermore, we find that in most countries inter-quantile differences in pay between mothers and non-mothers are mainly due to differences in human-capital. Differences in their occupational and sectoral segregation further shape these wage differentials along the wage distribution in the UK, Germany and Portugal in our sample of young mothers and in Spain in the sample of old mothers.<p><p>In the fourth chapter, we analyse the combined effect of motherhood and the family status on women’s wage.<p> <p>Our fourth question is :Is there a lone motherhood pay gap in Europe? And does it vary along the wage distribution of mothers?<p>Substantial research has been devoted to the analysis of poverty and income gaps between households of different types. The effects of family status on wages have been studied to a lesser extent. In this chapter, we present a selectivity corrected quantile regression model for the lone motherhood pay gap – the differential in hourly wage between lone mothers and those with partners. We used harmonized data from the European Community Household Panel and present results for a panel of European countries. We found evidence of lone motherhood penalties and bonuses. In our analysis, most countries presented higher wage disparities at the top of the wage distribution rather than at the bottom or at the mean. Our results suggest that cross-country differences in the lone motherhood pay gap are mainly due to differences in observed and unobserved characteristics between partnered mothers and lone mothers, differences in sample selection and presence of young children in the household. We also investigated other explanations for these differences such as the availability and level of childcare arrangements, the provision of gender-balanced leave and the level of child benefits and tax incentives. As expected, we have found significant positive relationship between the pay gap between lone and partnered mothers and the childcare, take-up and cash and tax benefits policies. Therefore improving these family policies would reduce the raw pay gap observed. <p> / Doctorat en Sciences économiques et de gestion / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

La présente étude porte sur l'Union Minière du Haut-Katanga (actuellement la Générale des carrières et des mines). Nous y analysons les facteurs de formation d'une élite professionnelle. La thèse examine le rapport entre les politiques salariales et les schèmes de perceptions et de représentations des catégories sociales. Nous soutenons que ces politiques ont conduit à l'émergence d'une catégorie sociale incapable de s'assumer puisqu’en ville coloniale, seule l'UMHK contrôlait les ressources économiques et symboliques de la modernité. C'est l'entreprise qui détenait le secret de la formation professionnelle et définissait les exigences de cotation et de classification des emplois. Ces politiques se sont avérées des mécanismes générateurs de l'inégalité sociale au sein de l'entreprise. Pour vérifier nos hypothèses de travail, nous avons recouru aux approches longitudinales qui recommandent l'analyse des variables contextuelles: origine sociale, niveau d'instruction, classe d'emploi, niveau de salaire, rapports sur le chantier et hors du milieu de travail. Après une confrontation de ces données avec le vécu ouvrier, l'étude a montré que les modes d’ajustements des ouvriers spécialisés à la culture d'entreprise ont été des signes incontestables d'évolution des mentalités des travailleurs allant de pair avec une certaine permanence des caractéristiques de mode de vie propre à ce milieu. Pour l'entreprise qui engage et qui forme sa main-d'oeuvre, la rémunération a été la condition nécessaire (mais non suffisante) de la participation du travailleur à la réalisation d'une oeuvre commune. L'expérience du travail n'est alors pas seulement vécue comme une réalité professionnelle et économique mais plus largement comme signe d'une inégalité sociale. L'étude a relevé que l'absence d'une élite responsable a aussi été liée à l'absence d'une base économique et sociale. Dans ces conditions, la reproduction de la conscience de classe n'a pas pu se faire aisément. Les politiques salariales sont faites des multiples stratégies de division sociale en vue d'obtenir une paix sociale aussi durable que possible. L'étude suggère d'étudier à l'avenir les autres systèmes de différenciations sociales et économiques au sein de l'UMHK. Elle propose une approche pro-active qui encouragerait les services de qualification professionnelle (QPR) à contribuer simultanément à la satisfaction des objectifs des individus et ceux de l'entreprise. La clé de croissance est dans la plus grande participation des travailleurs à l'organisation du travail. C'est grâce à l'amélioration des conditions de vie des travailleurs que l'entreprise pourrait devenir moins paternaliste, moins individualisante, mais plus objectivante. / Québec Université Laval, Bibliothèque 2013