This paper investigates the origins of the Open Education movement in the United States and traces its development throughout the twentieth century. Pioneers of the movement are discussed, with an extensive description of John Dewey's work provided. Political and social forces which affected Open Education throughout the century are described. Finally, current trends in education are examined to determine whether Open Education remains in practice. Conclusions and implications for classroom practice are included.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of the use of a school-wide token economy program on middle school students' achievement, behavior, and attitudes toward school. This involved the comparison of two similar suburban middle schools, one of which used a school-wide token economy program. A nonequivalent control-group design was used to examine: (1) the effects on achievement as measured by grades and honor roll status; (2) the effects on behavior as measured by numbers of students attaining perfect attendance, numbers of punches earned, and numbers of detentions and suspensions; and (3) the effects on attitude as measured by the School Attitude Measure (SAM). Data were gathered from school guidance and disciplinary records. The results indicated that there was a statistically significant relationship between the token economy program and student achievement as measured by grades and honor roll status in the A/B honor roll (p Implications and limitations of the study are discussed. Suggestions for further research are presented.

This study examined the relationship between first grade teachers' theoretical orientations toward reading and their classroom instructional practices. The study, which was conducted in Duval County Florida, used the Theoretical Orientation to Reading Profile (DeFord, 1985) and the Luciano Reading Instruction Practices Survey to gather self-reported data from the 102 study participants. The sample teachers reported the frequency with which they used 25 specific instructional practices to assist students in learning to read. Ten percent of the sample teachers were observed by the researcher for thirty minutes and their instructional practices were documented on a checklist which corresponded to the Luciano survey. These observations found that 48% of the reported practices were present. Raw scores on the TORP instrument indicated that 22.5% of the sample teachers held a phonics orientation towards reading, while 77.5% scored in the mid-range indicating an orientation which supported a mixed theoretical orientation of decoding skills and whole language approaches. No significant mean difference was found when teachers' survey scores were used to categorize them as supporters of either phonics, whole language, or a combination approach to reading instruction. However, a correlation of r = .46 (p < .0005) was found between raw scores on the two instruments indicating a moderate relationship among teachers' theoretical beliefs and instructional practices. Descriptive statistics of instructional practices obtained from the Luciano Reading Instruction Practices Survey (RIPS) indicated that 72% of all the sample teachers allowed students time for freereading on a daily basis, 66% reported emphasizing letter sounds, 59% reported using consumable skills workbooks every day, and 56% of the study teachers activated student interest prior to each reading experience. RIPS scores also indicated that sample teachers who used a combination of phonics and whole language practices comprised the largest group (46%) in the study. Nearly 1 0% of the sample used a majority of phonics-based practices and 44% reported utilizing mostly whole language-type activities. The results of this study provided insights as to the current methods being used to teach reading at the first grade level in a large urban school district and indicated moderate support as to a relationship between teachers' theoretical orientations and classroom practices.

The purpose of the project was to determine the effects of journal writing on the thinking skills of high school geometry students. The research supports the idea that writing can enhance a student's metacognitive ability. The results show that the journals served effectively in various capacities. Each student became actively involved in his or her own learning process. Writing forced the students to synthesize information and they became aware of what they did and did not know. They recognized their individual learning style and strengths and began to take advantage of those strengths. The journals served as a diagnostic tool for the instructor and they opened lines of communication between teacher and student and personalized the learning environment. The results of the project suggest that this type of journal keeping would be effective in all disciplines but it is especially recommended that it be implemented throughout a mathematics department.

The purpose of the study was to construct a listening module for tenth grade students who were at least four grade levels behind in reading comprehension. The module was designed to be self-pacing, self-checking, motivating and improve factual recall. The module consisted of fifteen taped lessons, a taped pre test and post test, and was introduced by a motivational and directional statement. The lessons were chosen for their highly motivating nature and were organized in order of difficulty and length; the easier and shorter stories at the beginning and gradually getting more difficult and longer. In the module the students listened to a story and then were directed to complete an activity. They were also given instruction in the skill of factual recall before they began each story. They had a module booklet which contained all the activities and answers to assure independence. The pre test was administered first and when all lessons were completed, the post test was given. The module was integrated into the student1s language arts class and they worked on the module two hours a week for two weeks during the pilot testing. Included in the time devoted to the module was individual conferences with the teacher. Also, the students worked in groups of four to encourage feedback from peers.

This research project deals with the effects of standardized achievement tests on elementary-school mathematics. It contains a review of current literature dealing with the decline in mathematics achievement, mathematics assessment, concept development, and the effects of standardized testing. A survey was conducted in seven elementary schools throughout Clay County, Florida. The purpose of the survey was to assess teachers' perceptions of how preparation for the major annual standardized achievement test affects the pacing, sequence, and presentation of their mathematics curricula. Eighty-six teachers from grades one, three, and five completed a limited response questionnaire. The results indicate that a majority of elementary school teachers try to prepare their students for the standardized achievement test by covering all testable skills by testing time. However, most teachers feel that preparation for this test has a negative impact on their mathematics programs. This implies that the mathematics education of our students may be suffering due to the emphasis on preparing for a standardized achievement test.

The purpose of this study was to provide a synthesis and evaluation of research regarding the efficacy of using advance organizers as a pre instructional teaching strategy to enhance students' cognitive growth. Additionally, two sample advance organizers are provided as a model for classroom application, along with caveats for advance organizer construction, presentation and usage. The third component of this study was an evaluation of selected advance organizer studies based on the work of Mayer (1979). The conclusion was that advance organizers do facilitate long term retention and conceptual understanding if prepared and presented properly using language and examples relevant to the students' prior knowledge. Visual aids and metacognitive reading strategies seem to enhance the effectiveness of advance organizers. If the student already possesses prior knowledge of the subject matter or makes mental connections between familiar and unfamiliar content, then advance organizers are not needed.

The purpose of this study was to collect and interpret base-line data concerning the organizational culture and climate of selected elementary and secondary schools. The sample consisted of 20 parochial schools, 10 elementary and 10 secondary, in the mideast section of the United states. The study focused on three specific questions: 1) What are the cultural values of parochial schools, 2) What is the organizational climate of parochial schools, and 3) Do the cultural values and climate characteristics of parochial elementary schools differ from those of parochial secondary schools? Nelson's (1990) Cultural Value Analysis Tool (CVAT) was used to gather organizational culture data. Hoy, Tarter and Kottkamp's revised Organization Climate Description Questionnaire (OCDQ) was used to gather organizational climate data. Analysis of data on the 419 responses included the following: 1) One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) on real and ideal means of the sixteen cultural dimensions across the elementary and secondary schools individually, 2) One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) on the real means of the sixteen dimensions comparing the elementary and secondary schools, and 3) confidence intervals on the principal and teacher behaviors of the OCDQ as compared to the norm group of Hoy, Tarter, and Kottkamp. Significant differences between ideal and real means were found on dimensions of effort, status, and flexibility for the elementary schools (p < .05). Significant differences between the ideal and real means were found on dimensions of effort, time, quality, empathy, dominance, status, political, abstract, planning/organization, and flexibility (p < .05) for the secondary schools. The one-way analysis of variance conducted on the descriptive mean scores of the 16 dimensions of the CVAT showed no statistical difference between elementary and secondary level schools. Confidence intervals indicated that parochial elementary principals are more supportive, less restrictive, and as directive as the principals in the norm group. Parochial elementary teachers were more collegial, less disengaged, and as intimate in their behaviors as the teachers in the norm group. Confidence intervals formed from the mean scores on the OCDQ-RS indicated that parochial secondary principals were more supportive and as directive as the principals in the norm group. Parochial secondary teachers were more engaged, less frustrated, and more intimate in their behaviors as compared to the teachers in the norm group. All parochial schools had an open climate to varying degrees ranging from below average openness to very high openness. The 20 parochial schools valued the cultural dimensions of quality, empathy, leader, and planning/organization. Parochial schools valued the cultural theme of relations as the top priority, followed by the themes of work, thought, and control.

Guidelines for primary grade (k-3) teachers to use in oral story reading were developed as a means of increasing students' reading achievement. These guidelines were incorporated into primary grade lesson plans. Each lesson plan included a research principle which served as the lesson objective, identified a book for oral reading, and described pre, post, and during activities. The lesson plans were pilot-tested by primary grade teachers at an elementary school site. Data were collected and analyzed to determine teacher perceptions of the effectiveness of the guidelines. This analysis indicated that the teachers perceived the guidelines to be effective. Based on feedback, one additional guideline was added. Conclusions, recommendations, and implications for further research were developed.

This curriculum project was developed to provide the teacher of a self-contained primary ESOL classroom with a workable integration of the critical elements of bilingual education. The project traces the history of bilingual education in the United States. It reviews some of the important legislation and judicial decisions that form the framework for current bilingual education. It examines some learning and language theories that educators translate into practice in instructing, guiding, and evaluating ESOL students. This design was developed for use in a self contained ESOL class in Duval County, Florida. Students in the class speak a variety of languages other than English. All are learning English as their second language. Their English proficiency level varies from nonspeaker to fluent. The curriculum is designed to recognize each child's abilities and needs while meeting the second grade objectives set forth by the Duval County School Board and complying with the Duval County Public Schools Limited English Proficient Plan. It is hoped that an examination of an integrated thematic unit will provide a useful model for the primary ESOL teacher.