This thesis describes an investigation into the influences of arcing and conductor deflection due to magnetic forces on the accuracy of fault locator algorithms in electrical distribution networks. The work also explores the possibilities of using the properties of an arc to identify two specific types of faults that may occur on an overhead distribution line. A new technique using the convolution operator is introduced for deriving differential equation algorithms. The first algorithm was derived by estimating the voltage as an array of impulse functions while the second algorithm was derived using a piecewise linear voltage signal. These algorithms were tested on a simulated single-phase circuit using a PI-model line. It was shown that the second algorithm gave identical results as the existing dynamic integration operator type algorithm. The first algorithm used a transformation to a three-phase circuit that did not require any matrix calculations as an equivalent sequence component circuit is utilised for a single-phase to ground fault. A simulated arc was used to test the influence of the non-linearity of an arc on the accuracy of this algorithm. The simulations showed that the variation in the resistance due to arcing causes large oscillations of the algorithm output and a 40th order mean filter was used to increase the accuracy and stability of the algorithm. The same tests were performed on a previously developed fault locator algorithm that includes a square-wave power frequency proximation of the fault arc. This algorithm gave more accurate and stable results even with large arc length variations. During phase-to-phase fault conditions, two opposing magnetic fields force the conductors outwards away from each other and this movement causes a change in the total inductance of the line. A three dimensional finite element line model based on standard wave equations but incorporating magnetic forces was used to evaluate this phenomenon. The results show that appreciable errors in the distance estimations can be expected especially on poorly tensioned di stribution lines.New techniques were also explored that are based on identification of the fault arc. Two methods were successfully tested on simulated networks to identify a breakingconductor. The methods are based on the rate of increase in arc length during the breaking of the conductor. The first method uses arc voltage increase as the basis of the detection while the second method make use of the increase in the non-linearity of the network resistance to identify a breaking conductor. An unsuccessful attempt was made to identifying conductor clashing caused by high winds: it was found that too many parameters influence the separation speed of the two conductors. No unique characteristic could be found to identify the conductor clashing using the speed of conductor separation. The existing algorithm was also used to estimate the voltage in a distribution network during a fault for power quality monitoring purposes.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T14:56:16Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 DiegoAF_DISSERT.pdf: 1045785 bytes, checksum: 38dd893df9531c8e71f483fc22aa3802 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-12-18 / Coordena??o de Aperfei?oamento de Pessoal de N?vel Superior / This work proposes a new technique for phasor estimation applied in microprocessor numerical relays for distance protection of transmission lines, based on the recursive least squares method and called least squares modified random walking. The phasor estimation methods have compromised their performance, mainly due to the DC exponential decaying component present in fault currents. In order to reduce the influence of the DC component, a Morphological Filter (FM) was added to the method of least squares and previously applied to the process of phasor estimation. The presented method is implemented in MATLABr and its performance is compared to one-cycle Fourier technique and conventional phasor estimation, which was also based on least squares algorithm. The methods based on least squares technique used for comparison with the proposed method were: forgetting factor recursive, covariance resetting and random walking. The techniques performance analysis were carried out by means of signals synthetic and signals provided of simulations on the Alternative Transient Program (ATP). When compared to other phasor estimation methods, the proposed method showed satisfactory results, when it comes to the estimation speed, the steady state oscillation and the overshoot. Then, the presented method performance was analyzed by means of variations in the fault parameters (resistance, distance, angle of incidence and type of fault). Through this study, the results did not showed significant variations in method performance. Besides, the apparent impedance trajectory and estimated distance of the fault were analysed, and the presented method showed better results in comparison to one-cycle Fourier algorithm / Prop?e-se neste trabalho uma nova t?cnica de estima??o fasorial, a ser utilizada em rel?s num?ricos microprocessados digitais para prote??o de dist?ncia de linhas de transmiss?o, baseada no m?todo dos m?nimos quadrados recursivo, denominada m?nimos quadrados em caminhada aleat?ria modificada. Os m?todos de estima??o fasorial t?m seu desempenho comprometido devido, principalmente, ? componente DC de decaimento exponencial presente nas correntes de falta. Para reduzir a influ?ncia da componente DC, agregou-se ao m?todo de m?nimos quadrados um Filtro Morfol?gico (FM) aplicado previamente ao processo de estima??o fasorial. O m?todo apresentado foi implementado em ambiente MATLABr e o seu desempenho comparado aos m?todos convencionais de estima??o fasorial, tamb?m baseados em m?nimos quadrados, e ao algoritmo de Fourier de um ciclo. Os m?todos baseados na t?cnica de m?nimos quadrados utilizados para compara??o com o m?todo proposto foram: recursivo ponderado, com reinicializa??o da covari?ncia e caminhada aleat?ria. As an?lises de desempenho das t?cnicas foram realizadas por meio de sinais sint?ticos e sinais oriundos de simula??es no Alternative Transient Program (ATP). Em compara??o aos demais m?todos de estima??o fasorial, o m?todo proposto apresentou resultados satisfat?rios no que se refere ? velocidade de resposta, oscila??o em regime permanente e percentual de overshoot. Em seguida, o m?todo proposto teve seu desempenho analisado frente ?s varia??es nos par?metros de falta (resist?ncia, dist?ncia, ?ngulo de incid?ncia e tipo de falta). Nesse estudo, constatou-se que o m?todo n?o sofreu varia??es significativas em seus resultados. Al?m disso, analisou-se a trajet?ria da imped?ncia aparente e dist?ncia estimada da falta, ao qual o m?todo proposto apresentou melhores resultados em compara??o ao algoritmo de Fourier de um ciclo

Distance relays due to their selectivity and operating speed are used in HV/EHV line protection. The dynamic nature of Mho characteristic, which happens to be most primitive technique in line protection implemented with distance relaying, is built by using the measurement of local voltage and current signals. These signals have been influenced substantially by fault resistance and the source impedance feeding the line. In case of different generation sources, the source impedance and fault characteristic also change accordingly. Environmental benefit of wind turbine technology is making it a potential source of energy. These wind turbine-generating units (WTGU) use rugged induction/synchronous machines along with power electronics converters as controlling equipment. This gives a new challenge to distance relays, as the fault current contribution of these sources depends on the converter operational principle. In this thesis a typical wind farm of Indian systems are modeled in an IN-HOUSE tool developed as part of fault analysis on wind farm system. Directly connected and front-end converter based wind turbines with their interconnections are modeled in this simulation tool. Fault voltage and current waveforms are obtained for all types of wind turbine-generating units with both radial and LILO (Loop in Loop out) connection. PSCAD based modeling has been done for DFIG type of wind turbines. The fault waveforms are generated to evaluate relay performance. Five case studies having both Radial and Loop in Loop out (LILO) connection of wind farms are simulated. These case studies generate approximately 20000 cases, which are analyzed for distance relay performance studies. In addition, the analysis is further verified on relay hardware having three characteristics, namely Self Polarized Mho (SPM), Quadrature Polarized Mho (QPM) and Quadrilateral (QUAD) characteristics. The detailed studies are carried out in this thesis to ensure and suggest the system operators with appropriate relay characteristics to be used for transmission line protection in the case of wind farms interconnected to Grid. Based on the studies carried out in the thesis, LILO connection has no impact on distance relay characteristic. In radially connected wind farms, grid side relay will operate reliably for all types of faults. It has been recommended in the thesis that wind farm side distance relay characteristics should be adjusted based on the types of wind turbines (Type-1, Type-2, Type-3 and Type-4). Based on the investigations carried out in the thesis, voltage based phase selector has been recommended for Type-4 WTGU based wind farms.

This master’s thesis is about setting of distance protections. The first part is focused on a brief analysis of the basic types of failures and distance protections tripping characteristics and their co-operation with automatic re-turn. The most extensive theoretical chapter is devoted to specific influences that negatively affect the proper operation of distance protections. The practical part is about calculation of symmetrical short-circuit and dissymmetrical short-circuit conditions with consideration of fault resistance and the actual calculation settings of distance protections. Calculations of short-circuit conditions and setting of distance protections are made on a specific part of the network of E.ON in area Prostejov, which is supplied from the substation 400/110 kV Otrokovice.

Chránění paralelních a souběžných vedení je skutečně problematické z důvodů účinku vzájemné indukčnosti vedení v souběhu, odporu poruchy nebo rozložení zpětného proudu poruchy, které zkreslují impedanci jednofázové poruchy „viděné“ distanční ochranou. Proto současné numerické distanční ochrany nabízí kompenzační funkce, které je možno použít pro korekci charakteristik a výpočtu vzdálenosti poruchy pomocí lokátorů její charakteristice s dostatečnou odporovou rezervou a možnosti nastavení odpovídajícího režimu vypnutí. Tato práce se zabývá problémy, kterým čelí lokátor distanční ochrany při měření a výpočtu vzdálenosti místa jednofázové poruchy, a také mapuje současný stav řešení těchto problémů. Na základě výpočtu parametrů zadaného vedení bylo provedeno zhodnocení možných chyb při lokalizaci jednofázové poruchy a navrženo nastavení distanční ochrany určené k jeho chránění včetně nastavení parametrů určených pro kompenzaci výše uvedených negativních jevů. Bylo zjištěno, že zemnící lana a transpozice vedení přispívají k přesnosti lokátorů, protože nejmenší chyba byla zjištěna v transponovaném vedení se zemním lanem.

Reliability requirements for power systems have been constantly increasing, as customers of electric power desire high power availability. In order to improve continuity of supply in medium voltage (MV) networks, utilities in many countries in Europe, North/South America and Oceania use resonant earthing and allow the operation of the network during a single phasetoearth fault for periods from several seconds up to several hours, since the earthfault current at the fault point in such systems is considerably reduced and is unlikely to damage equipment or create hazardous voltages for people or livestock. Due to the neutral potential displacement during the phasetoearth fault, the healthy phases can rise up to 1.73 times the nominal values in the entire network, overstressing insulation and increasing the probability of a second fault from another phasetoearth fault somewhere in the network. The situation of two simultaneously active phasetoearth faults on different phases at different locations in a network is commonly called a crosscountry or doubleearth fault. The current through the earth then becomes many times higher than in case of a single phasetoearth fault in a resonantearthed network. Few studies about CrossCountry faults in MV systems have been done so far, particularly with real fault data and simulations. This thesis has as main objectives to: improve understanding of how crosscountry faults behave in resonantearthed systems; show how the double fault situation can be analytically calculated; and study what difficulties these faults can pose to traditional distance protection. This is done by: analyzing recordings of real faults, obtained from utilities in Scandinavia; modelling the fault situations analytically; simulating such systems with real system data; and examining in particular how faultedphase selection and distance protection behave during these faults. The developed mathematical model was compared with a simple simulated system. The results showed that the modelling produces accurate results. Analysis of the real faults showed that crosscountry faults cannot be equated directly to more traditional singlephase or doublephase faults on particular feeders, since voltages and currents can behave in atypical manners. Finally, during the comprehensive simulations of such network, limitations of traditional distance protection were identified. Phasetophase loops can face difficulties in properly detecting crosscountry faults even when one of the two simultaneous faults is relatively close to the measuring point. Phasetoearth loops can only be reliable when faults are solid or with very low resistance and in conditions where zero sequence current is present, while for multiple infeeds can also face difficulties. / Kraven på elkraftsystemets pålitlighet ökar hela tiden, då kundernas krav på tillgänglighet hela tiden stiger. Som ett led i att förbättra leveranssäkerheten på mellanspänningsnivån har ett flertal elnätsbolag i Europa, Nord och Sydamerika samt Oceanien börjat använda spoljordning. Genom detta kan jordfel under drift tillåtas, på allt ifrån sekundbasis till timmar. På detta sätt undviks driftavbrott vid jordfel. Spoljordning gör att jordfelsströmmen reduceras vilket minimerar risken för person, djur och egendomsskador. Under ett enfasigt jordfel höjs spänningen i de två opåverkade faserna till maximalt 1.73 gånger den nominella spänningen, detta i hela det aktuella nätet. Spänningshöjningen riskerar att ge skador på isolaringen, vilket gör att risken för uppkomsten av ett andra jordfel någonstans i samma nätavsnitt ökar. Att två enfasiga jordfel på olika platser inträffar samtidigt i samma nät, kallas dubbelt jordfel, på engelska crosscountry fault. Strömmen genom jord i ett spoljordat nät blir i detta fallet mycket högre än för ett enfasigt jordfel. Än så länge har bara ett fåtal studier med verkliga data och simuleringar gällande dubbla jordfel på mellanspänningsnivå utförts. Detta examensarbete syftar till att: förbättra förståelsen för hur dubbla jordfel uppkommer i spoljordade nät; beskriva hur dubbla jordfel kan beräknas analytiskt; och visa på vilka svårigheter dubbla jordfel kan ge för distansskydd. Detta görs genom: att analysera verkliga fel uppkomna i Skandinavien; analytisk modellering av dessa situationer; simulering med data från verkliga elnät; undersökning av hur felbehäftade delar och dess distansskydd beter sig vid fel. Den utvecklade matematiska modelleringsmetoden är jämförd med ett enkelt system som var simulerat, och resultaten av jämförelsen visar att modellen ger ett överensstämmande och noggrant resultat. Analysen av verkliga fel visar att dubbla jordfel inte direkt kan likställas med traditionella enfas- eller tvåfasfel för ett och samma utgående fack, då spänning och strömmar kan ha olika beteende. Avslutningsvis kunde begränsningar hos traditionella distansskydd upptäckas, tack var en omfattande simulering av nyss nämnda elnät. Fas- fas slingan kan se svårigheter att detektera dubbla fel även när ett av dessa två är nära till mätpunkten. Fas- jord slingan är endast pålitlig när felresistansen är försumbar, eller i fall där felresistansen är låg, samt i fall när nollföljdsströmmen är närvarande. Flera felströmsinmatningar kan likaså ställa till svårigheter.