Dramatic improvements in renewable energy and small-scale distributed generation (DG) technologies have been made in the last twenty years. Nevertheless, they remain underutilized in the American electric utility system. Despite the immense environmental, technical, and financial promise of renewable energy systems and DG technologies, such generators still constitute a very small percentage of electricity generation capacity in the United States. This relative neglect occurs despite remarkable gains in their technical performance and reductions in their cost of producing power—the result (in part) of dramatic government support for several decades. Moreover, the technologies often demonstrate great environmental benefits that appeal to policymakers and consumers. At the same time, they offer ways to enhance strained distribution and transmission networks. This project attempts to answer the apparently paradoxical question: why do new energy technologies that offer such impressive benefits also find the least use? The dissertation emphasizes how the history and culture of the community of electricity producers and users helps explain why the new technologies have seen little use. Going beyond technical explanations of alleged low capacity factors and high capital costs, it focuses on the social nature of decision making among participants in the electric utility system. The approach not only helps us understand the glossing over of renewable energy and distributed generation technologies, but also suggests ways of overcoming the barriers faced by their advocates. / Ph. D.

Solar PV-based distributed generation has increased significantly over the last few years, and the rapid growth is expected to continue in the foreseeable future. As the penetration levels of distributed generation increase, power systems will become increasingly decentralized with bi-directional flow of electricity between the transmission and distribution networks. To manage such decentralized power systems, planners and operators need models that accurately reflect the structure of, and interactions between the transmission and distribution networks. Moreover, algorithms that can simulate the steady state and dynamics of power systems using these models are also needed. In this context, integrated transmission and distribution system modeling and simulation has become an important research area in recent years, and the primary focus so far has been on studying the steady state response of power systems using integrated transmission and distribution system models. The primary objective of this dissertation is to develop an analysis approach and a program that can simulate the dynamics of three phase, integrated transmission and distribution system models, and use the program to demonstrate the advantages of evaluating the impact of solar PV-based distributed generation on power systems dynamics using such models. To realize this objective, a new dynamic simulation analysis approach is presented, the implementation of the approach in a program is discussed, and verification studies are presented to demonstrate the accuracy of the program. A new dynamic model for small solar PV-based distributed generation is also investigated. This model can interface with unbalanced networks and change its real power output according to the incident solar irradiation. Finally, application of the dynamic simulation program for evaluating the impact of solar PV units using an integrated transmission and distribution system model is discussed. The dissertation presents a new approach for studying the impact of solar PV-based distributed generation on power systems dynamics, and demonstrates that the solar PV impact studies performed using the program and integrated transmission and distribution system models provide insights about the dynamic response of power systems that cannot be obtained using traditional dynamic simulation approaches that rely on transmission only models. / Ph. D. / To ensure that electricity is delivered to consumers in a reliable manner, power system planners and operators rely on computer-based modeling and analysis of the electric grid. The software currently being used for this purpose are designed to simulate either the high voltage transmission networks, or the low voltage distribution networks. Till now these software have worked well as the electricity flow in the electric grid is largely unidirectional, from the transmission network to the distribution network. Neglecting the distribution network topology in transmission network models or vice-versa in such a structure of the electric grid does not introduce significant calculation errors. However, the rapid growth of consumer-owned and operated solar photovoltaics (PV) based distributed generation over the last few years, which is expected to continue in the foreseeable future, has necessitated a rethink of this modeling and analysis paradigm. As the penetration levels of distributed generation increase, the electric grid will become increasingly decentralized and there will be bi-directional flow of electricity between the transmission and distribution networks. Accurate analysis of such a decentralized electric grid cannot be performed if either the distribution or the transmission network topology is neglected in the models. Integrated transmission and distribution system modeling and simulation, where transmission and distribution networks are modeled as one single unit, has, therefore, become an important research area in recent years. This dissertation makes a contribution to this research area by presenting an analysis approach and a program that can be used to simulate the dynamics (time varying behavior of the electric grid when subjected to disturbances such as short-circuits) of integrated transmission and distribution system models. A dynamic model of solar PV-based distributed generation that can be used to simulate their behavior during dynamic simulations is also investigated. Finally, an application of the program is discussed where the impact of solar PV-based distributed generation on the dynamics of the electric grid is studied by using the solar PV model and an integrated transmission and distribution system model. The dissertation shows that by simulating integrated transmission and distribution system models using the dynamic simulation program, insights about the impact of solar PV-based distributed generation on the dynamics of the electric grid can be obtained, which the transmission only models cannot provide.

Yes / This paper used different risk management indicators applied to the investment optimization performed by consumers in Distributed Generation (DG). The objective function is the total cost incurred by the consumer including the energy and capacity payments, the savings, and the revenues from the installation of DG, alongside the operation and maintenance (O&M) and investment costs. Probability density function (PDF) was used to model the price volatility in the long-term. The mathematical model uses a two-stage stochastic approach: investment and operational stages. The investment decisions are included in the first stage and which do not change with the scenarios of the uncertainty. The operation variables are in the second stage and, therefore, take different values with every realization. Three risk indicators were used to assess the uncertainty risk: Value-at-Risk (VaR), Conditional Value-at-Risk (CVaR), and Expected Value (EV). The results showed the importance of migration from deterministic models to stochastic ones and, most importantly, the understanding of the ramifications of every risk indicator.

Power losses are always a cause of worry for any power grid. In India, the situation is even worse. Though recent reports by Ministry of Power shows that Aggregate Technical and Commercial losses (AT &C losses) have come down from 36.64% in 2002-03 to 27% in 2011-12, yet they are much higher than the losses seen in many of the developed nations. The reduction shown in power loss is because of the Electricity Act, 2003 and the amendments made to it in 2007 which controlled the commercial losses rather than the technical losses. According to Ministry of Power, technical losses (Transmission & Distribution losses or T&D losses) in India are reported to be 23.65% in 2011-12. However, according to the study done by EPRI, for systems deployed in developed countries, these losses are estimated to be in the range of 7-15.5%. T & D losses occur in four system components namely step-up transformers and high voltage transmission (0.5-1%), step down to in intermediate voltage, transmission and step down to sub transmission voltage level (1.5-3%), sub-transmission system and step down to low voltage for distribution (2-4.5%), and distribution lines (3-7%). 1% of power loss is approximately equivalent to annual loss of Rs 600 million for a single state. Hence, in a year, loss in distribution line alone causes approximate loss of Rs 1.8-4.2 billion per state. Understanding and reducing power losses in distribution lines which contribute nearly 50% of the total T&D losses assume significance and has formed the motivation for the work reported in the thesis. In recent years, the trend has been to encourage users to generate solar power predominantly at residential complexes and captive power plants at industrial complexes. It has been suggested in the literature that Distributed Generation (DG) can not only reduce the load demanded from the power grid but also the power loss. In this thesis, it has been shown that by the choice of proper size and location of DG, the power loss can be reduced substantially as compared to unplanned deployment of DGs. The objective of the thesis is to design strategy for location of distributed user generated power to maximize the reduction in power loss. The thesis begins with a study of distributed generation in primary distribution networks and proceeds to problem formulation, with the aim being to develop an algorithm that can find out the optimal locations for DG allocation in a network. A greedy approximation algorithm, named OPLODER (i.e. Optimal Locations for Distributed Energy Resources), is proposed for the same and its performance on a benchmark data set is observed, which is found to be satisfactory. The thesis then moves on to describe the actual data of 101,881 commercial, residential and industrial consumers of Bangalore metropolitan area. A loss model is discussed and is used to calculate the line losses in LV part of the grid and loss is estimated for the said actual data. The detailed analysis of the losses in the distribution network shows that in most cases the losses are correlated with the sanctioned load. However there are also some outliers indicating otherwise. The analysis concludes that the distributed generated sources need to be optimally located in order to benefit fully. Also presented thereafter is a study about the impact of electrical properties and the structure of the network on power loss. In the second part of the thesis, OPLODER was again used to process the BESCOM data of 101,881 consumers by modeling them to be connected in three topologies namely Bus (i.e. linear structure), Star (i.e. directly connected) and Hybrid (i.e. tree structure). In case of Bus topology, when DG capacity available is 5% of the demand in substation, OPLODER reduced the loss from 14.65% to 10.75%, from 11.63% to 7.71% and from 13.33% to 9.24% for IISc, Brindavan, and Gokula substations respectively. Similarly, for the same amount of DG in case of star topology, OPLODER reduced loss from 1.75% to 1.26%, from 3.39% to 2.59% and from 2.96% to 1.99% for IISc, Brindavan, and Gokula substations respectively. Thereafter, the available real world data is re-modeled as a tree-type structure which is closer to the real world distribution network and OPLODER is run on it. The results obtained are similar to those presented above and are highly encouraging. When applied to the three substations viz. IISc, Brindavan and Gokula, the power loss dips from 9.95% to 7.42%, from 6.01% to 4.44% and from 8.07% to 5.95%, in case of DG used is 5% of the demand in substation. For the optimal strategies worked out in the thesis, additional overheads will be present. These overheads are studied and it has been found that the present infrastructure and technologies will be sufficient to handle the smart distribution network and the optimal strategy for distributed sources.

This study concerns frequency relays and voltage relays applied to the protection of synchronous distributed generators operating in reactive power control mode without a frequency regulation function. The effect of active and reactive powers combination, load power factor, and reactive power imbalance are investigated for their implication for the anti-islanding setting of the frequency relay. Results reveal that the effect of these factors must be considered when setting the relay for islanding detection. For the voltage relay, results reveal that the effect of active and reactive powers combination, load power factor, and active power imbalance must be considered when setting the relay for islanding detection. The effect of multi-stage tripping on the frequency relay ability to detect island was also investigated. Results show that multistage tripping can improve the anti-islanding performance of the frequency relay. / Electrical Engineering / M. Tech. (Electrical Engineering)

Submitted by Miriam Lucas (miriam.lucas@unioeste.br) on 2017-09-04T13:07:47Z No. of bitstreams: 2 Marcos_Tragueta_2017.pdf: 1953593 bytes, checksum: c89f1ba57bb6b1ba944410013aebbde7 (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-09-04T13:07:47Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 Marcos_Tragueta_2017.pdf: 1953593 bytes, checksum: c89f1ba57bb6b1ba944410013aebbde7 (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-05-05 / The insertion of distributed power sources of low power presents new challenges in the planning and operation of distribution systems. The coordination of the protection system is a challenge which modifies as the insertion of the distributed generation grows at any point in any system. In order to verify how the coordination is altered different indicators have been proposed in literature, seeking to express numerically the effect of this insertion on the pair of relays of a coordinated protection system. The Protection Coordination Index (PCI) and the Protection Miscoordination Index (PMI) are shown as valid indicators for this analysis. The purpose of this paper is to apply these quantifiers in the protection schemes of distribution lines of radial and grid systems that use Inverse Time Overcurrent Relays. By applying these indicators, it will be possible to judge if they will provide enough information to analyze the impact of GD insertion in the SDEE, otherwise, identify if there will be limitations which can be remedied by proposing new indicators. The new indicators proposed in this paper seek to cover the limitations observed, without necessarily using the same information. To achieve this goal, distributed generators will be connected at different points in the network, and its generation capacity will be changed in an increasing way; where for each insertion value and at each point of the system, the Coordination Time Intervals (CTI) between consecutive pairs of relays will be verified, and from these values, the quantitative indicators of the impact of the GD will be calculated. For this, a distribution grid system was modeled with a purpose of obtain the required quantities in the scaling of CT1s and relays, thus obtaining a selective coordinate operation, where for each primary relay there will be an extra relay, forming a protective pair. Next two protective systems were adjusted: one considering one-way relays and another, twoway relays. Finally, for the protection systems dimensioned and coordinated, the indexes found in the literature and the proposed indexes were calculated and compared to the same pair of relays, considering the same GD insertion value at different points of the system. Every indicator were valid to the quantification of the GD insertion impact in the protection schemes applied to SDEE, where IDP indicates a percentage of faults that will cause miscoordination, IDPP indicates the percentage of pairs of relays that will be miscoordinate for each fault, ICP shows wether the ITC variation will occur slowly or rapidly, where the faster variation will result in miscoordination rather than the slower one and ITC (%) imposes a restriction on ITC reduction indicating whether the insertion value will miscoordinate the pairs of relays analyzed through numerical values. / A inserção de fontes de energia distribuídas de baixa potência apresenta novos retos no planejamento e operação de sistemas de distribuição. Um reto é a coordenação do sistema de proteção que se altera a medida que a inserção de Geração Distribuída (GD) cresce em qualquer ponto de qualquer sistema. Para verificar como a coordenação é alterada, tem sido proposto, na literatura, diferentes indicadores que visam expressar numericamente qual é o efeito desta inserção nos pares de relés de um sistema de proteção coordenado. O Protection Coordination Index (PCI) e o Protection Miscoordination Index (PMI), se mostram como indicativos válidos para esta análise. O objetivo deste trabalho é aplicar estes quantificadores nos esquemas de proteção de linhas de distribuição de sistemas radiais e malhados que utilizem Relés de Sobrecorrente Direcionais de Tempo Inverso. Pela aplicação destes indicadores foi possível julgar se as informações obtidas são suficientes para a análise do impacto da inserção de GD nos SDEE, identificando o surgimento de limitações, sanadas pela proposição de novos indicadores. Para alcançar este objetivo, geradores distribuídos foram conectados em diferentes pontos da rede, e sua capacidade de geração foi alterada de forma crescente; onde para cada valor de inserção e em cada ponto do sistema, foram verificados os Intervalos de Tempo de Coordenação (ITC) entre pares de relés consecutivos, e a partir destes valores, os indicadores quantitativos do impacto da inserção de GD, calculados. Para isso, foi modelado um sistema de distribuição malhado, visando a obtenção das grandezas requeridas no dimensionamento dos TC's e relés, obtendo assim uma operação coordenada seletiva, onde para cada relé primário há pelo menos um de retaguarda, formando pares protetores. Em seguida dois sistemas de proteção foram ajustados: um considerando relés unidirecionais e outro, relés bidirecionais. Finalmente, para os sistemas de proteção dimensionados e coordenados, os índices encontrados na literatura e os índices propostos foram calculados e comparados para um mesmo par de relés, considerando um mesmo valor de inserção de GD em diferentes pontos do sistema. Todos os indicadores se mostraram válidos para a quantificação do impacto da inserção de GD nos esquemas de proteção aplicados a SDEE, onde IDP indica a porcentagem de faltas que irá ocasionar descoordenação, IDPP indica a porcentagem de pares de relés que irá se descoordenar para cada falta, ICP mostra se a variação de ITC ocorrerá de forma lenta ou rápida, onde a variação mais veloz resultará antes em descoordenação em relação à mais lenta e ITC (%) impõe uma restrição à redução de ITC indicando se o valor de inserção irá descoordenar os pares de relés analisados, através de valores numéricos.

Master of Science / Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering / Anil Pahwa / A time may soon come where prices of electricity vary by time of day or season. Time of Day (TOD) pricing is considered by many to be a key part of creating a more energy-efficient and renewable-energy friendly grid. TOD pricing is also an integral part of Smart Grid and is already available to some customers. With TOD pricing becoming a reality, intelligent dispatching systems that utilize Energy Storage Devices (ESDs) to maximize the use of renewable resources, such as energy produced by small, customer owned wind generators and roof-top solar generators, and grid energy while determining the most economical dispatch schedule could play an important role for both the customer and the utility. This purpose of this work is to create an algorithm upon which these dispatching systems can be based. The details of one proposed algorithm are presented. The full development of the algorithm from its most simplistic form into a much more complex system that takes into account all of the major nonidealities of a real system is given. Additionally, several case studies are presented to show the effectiveness of the algorithm from both a technical standpoint and an economic standpoint. The case studies simulated both wind and solar powered devices using data taken in the state of Kansas, but case studies to emulate electric rates and renewable resources in other areas of the country are presented as well. For each of these case studies, 20 year net present value calculations are presented to determine the economic viability of both the renewable energy production and the dispatching systems.

This thesis studies a multiple-input single ended primary inductor converter (MI SEPIC) topology. The configuration allows the integration of different low-power distributed generation sources, such as individual photovoltaic modules, fuel cells, and small residential wind generators, into a common dc main bus. The current source interface allows the integration of all types of sources without the addition of filters; sources that require a nearly constant input current, such as fuel cells. In addition to discussing the circuit’s main models and operation, the thesis evaluates the stability under a decentralized PI control scheme through small signal analysis. The analysis is verified with simulations and experiments with prototypes. A derived circuit topology, the isolated MI SEPIC, is also explored here. In addition, a nonlinear control scheme, Lyapunov-based control, is implemented to stabilize an MI SEPIC. / text

I explore the environmental and economic value to be gained by using a greater proportion of renewable distributed generation, mainly solar, relative to centralized generation in the United States in this thesis. I explain the benefits of distributed solar, namely the reductions in environmental damage and the economic benefits for system owners. These benefits will are compared to the obstacles to renewable distributed generation adoption: the costs associated with installation, the political resistance from utilities and power producers, and the aspects of current energy infrastructure that limit wider adoption of distributed solar. I make recommendations for changes to utility strategy, as well as provide policy prescriptions at the local, state, and national level to incentivize distributed solar. These findings and suggested actions can help inform policymakers and utilities as they shape future U.S. energy infrastructure.

An approach to utilize Distributed Generation (DG) to minimize the total load shedding by analyzing the power system in Transactive energy framework is proposed. An algorithm to optimize power system in forward and spot markets to maximize an electric utility’s profit by optimizing purchase of power from DG is developed. The proposed algorithm is a multi-objective optimization with the main objective to maximize a utility’s profit by minimizing overall cost of production, load shedding, and purchase of power from distributed generators. This work also proposes a method to price power in forward and spot markets using existing LMP techniques. Transactive accounting has been performed to quantify the consumer payments in both markets. The algorithm is tested in two test systems; a 6-bus system and modified IEEE 14-bus system. The results show that by investing in DG, utility benefits from profit increase, load shedding reduction, and transmission line loading improvement.