Schizophrenia (SCZ) is a debilitating mental illness that affects roughly 1% of the world's population. Current theories about the etiology of this disease highlight disruptions in dopamine (DA) and glutamine. However, a more recent theory, the 'synaptic hypothesis' proposes that the fundamental pathology of this illness involves disruptions in synaptic transmission. The synapsins are a family of neuron specific phosphoproteins that play an important role in neurotransmitter release, synapse formation and maintaining a reserve pool of synaptic vesicles. Previous research has suggested that synapsin II has a role in the etiology of SCZ. For example, synapsin II mRNA is significantly reduced in the medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) of patients, and synapsin II knockout mice display a variety of behavioural abnormalities which mimic human SCZ. Considering that SCZ may result from changes in the synapse, we wanted to further elucidate the role of synapsin II by measuring protein expression in post-mortem PFC samples. Overall, our results revealed that synapsin IIa and IIb are not significantly different between patients and controls, however, we hypothesize that synapsin II expression has been normalized in patients due to antipsychotic drug (APD) use. In fact, we discovered that treatment with atypical APDs significantly increases synapsin II in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) of patients, which may underlie the beneficial effects of these drugs. Another objective of our work was to investigate the expression of various presynaptic proteins in post-mortem samples from patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) Parkinson's disease, like SCZ, is an illness which involves dysregulated dopaminergic transmission and synaptic dysfunction. Therefore, we hypothesized that synapsin II might also be disrupted in patients with PD. Our results demonstrated that synapsin IIa and IIb are significantly reduced in the substantia nigra (SN), but not the striatum (STR) or PFC of patients, when compared to controls. Further, no changes were observed in the other synapsins (I or III), or synaptophysin, which suggests that synapsin II dysregulation may be specific to disorders which involve disruptions in dopamine (DA). / Thesis / Master of Science (MS)

The dopaminergic neurons form a brain-wide neuromodulatory system affecting reward, addiction, and motor behaviors. Alterations in dopamine signaling have been associated with many brain disorders, including schizophrenia and Parkinson’s disease. Over the last decade, it has been well-established that the dopaminergic system is capable of significant neurotransmitter phenotypic plasticity (NPP), which is defined as the activity-dependent loss or gain of a specific neurotransmitter usage by neurons. However, most of the related studies have focused on specific regions, providing important but limited insights into NPP. Attaining an unbiased mapping of brain-wide NPP and its relationship with behavioral changes has remained challenging. In this thesis, we first addressed the technical challenges by establishing a whole-brain phenotyping pipeline. Next, we utilized these tools to generate the first brain-wide map of NPP in response to chronic exposure to (R,S)-ketamine, revealing some of the underlying fundamental principles. Here, we describe a whole brain NPP mapping pipeline for studying dopaminergic phenotypic plasticity following chronic (R,S)-ketamine exposure. The pipeline includes 1) an optimized whole brain tissue clearing/immunostaining method for labeling the dopaminergic neurons by utilizing rate-limiting marker tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), 2) high-resolution whole-brain imaging with CLARITY optimized light-sheet microscopy (COLM) and light sheet theta microscopy (LSTM), and 3) a custom python-based data analysis pipeline for quantitative mapping of the brain-wide NPP. Our first key result is that chronic (R,S)-ketamine administration leads to divergent brain-wide changes in the dopaminergic system. Specifically, ten days (but not 1 or 5 days) of daily (R,S)-ketamine (100 mg/kg) administration resulted in a significant decrease in TH+ neurons in regions of the midbrain and a significant increase in areas of the hypothalamus. Second, chronic (R,S)-ketamine treatment also induced an increase in TH+ neuronal projections, including increases within associative cortical brain regions such as the prelimbic area, orbital area, and anterior cingulate area. Decreases in the density of TH+ neuronal projections were observed in the auditory (AUDd) and visual cortices (VISpl). Third, we performed mRNA expression mapping and before-after treatment comparison of the TH+ neuron population within the same animal to reveal that newly gained TH+ neurons are mainly recruited from the neuron pool that contained untranslated TH mRNA. Overall, this thesis provides a first brain-wide quantitative survey of the NPP caused by a specific drug (R,S)-ketamine, extending our fundamental understanding of the extent of adaptability of our brain in response to external stimuli.

Reinforcement learning occurs when organisms adapt the propensities of given behaviours on the basis of associations with reward and punishment. Currently, reinforcement learning models have been validated in minimalist environments in which only 1-2 environmental stimuli are present as possible predictors of reward. The exception to this is two studies in which the responses of the dopamine system to configurations of multiple stimuli were investigated, however, in both cases the stimuli were presented simultaneously rather than in a sequence. Therefore, we set out to understand how current models of reinforcement learning would respond under more complex conditions in which sequences of events are predictors of reward. In the two experimental chapters of this thesis, we attempted to understand whether midbrain dopaminergic neurons would respond to occasion setters (Chapter 3), and to the overexpectation effect (Chapter 4). In addition, we ran simulations of the behavioural paradigms using temporal difference models of reinforcement learning (Chapter 2) and compared the predictions of the model with the behavioural and neurophysiological data. In Chapter 3, by performing single-neuron recording from VTA and SNpc dopaminergic cells, we demonstrated that our population of neurons were most responsive to the latest predictor of reward, the conditioned stimulus (CS) and not the earliest, the occasion setter (the OS). This is in stark contrast with the predictions of the model (Chapter 2), where the greatest response is seen at the OS onset. We also showed at a neural level that there was only a weak enhancement of the response to the discriminative stimulus (SD) when this was preceded by the OS. On the other hand, at a behavioural level, bar pressing was greatest when the SD was preceded by the OS, demonstrating that rats could use the information provided by the OS, but that dopamine was not controlling the conditioned response. In Chapter 4, our population of dopaminergic neurons showed that they would preferentially respond to only one of the two conditioned stimuli (CSA, CSB) in the overexpectation paradigm. The predictions of the model (Chapter 2) suggested that when the two stimuli would be presented in compound, there would be an inhibitory response if the reward magnitude was kept constant and an excitatory response if the reward magnitude was doubled. The lack of neural firing to one of the two conditioned stimuli, however, does not make for easy interpretation of the data. Perhaps, one of the conditioned stimuli acted as if it were overshadowing the other, resulting in no response to the second CS. Interestingly, at a behavioural level, we did not see increased licking frequency to the compound stimuli presentation, a result that is somewhat at odds with the previous literature. Overall, the results of our experimental chapters suggest that the role that midbrain dopaminergic neurons play in reinforcement learning is more complex than that envisaged by previous investigations.

Le traitement médicamenteux de la maladie de Parkinson idiopathique (MPI) repose essentiellement,t sur la restauration de la transmission dopaminergique par la L-Dopa et par les agonistes dopaminergiques (DARAs) agissant sur les récepteurs dopaminergiques de la classe D2R et D3R. Cependant au cours du traitement apparaissent des comportements addictifs (addiction aux médicaments dopaminergiques, hyper-sexualité, addiction aux jeux, addiction aux achats impulsifs...). Ces troubles du comportement impulsifs (TCI) observés chez les patients parkinsoniens traités aux agonistes dopaminergiques ressemblent bien à ceux observés chez les utilisateurs chroniques de drogues d'abus telles que la morphine, les amphétamines ou la cocaïne. [...] Dans le but de comprendre la physiopathologie des manifestations addictives chez le patient parkinsonien, notre étude s'est proposée d'étudier les effets renforçateurs ou motivationnels des agonistes dopaminergiques chez l'animal dont l'ATV postérieur ou antérieure ont été bilatéralement lésés. Les manifestations addictives seront investies en utilisant le test de préférence de place conditionnée (PPC), un paradigme qui étudie l'effet motivationnel / renforçateur des agonistes utilisés. Une particularité de notre étude est qu'elle a été réalisée chez l'animal naïf sans être au préalable sensibilisé à une drogue d'abus. Son intérêt est de montrer l'effet direct des agonistes dopaminergiques sur le comportement recherché. / Néant

Microglia-mediated neuroinflammation plays an important role in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD). Uncontrolled microglia activation produces major proinflammatory factors including cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) that may cause dopaminergic neurodegeneration. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) agonist pioglitazone has potent antiinflammatory property. We hypothesize pioglitazone protects dopaminergic neuron from lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced neurotoxicity by interacting with relevant signal pathways, inhibiting microglial activation and decreasing inflammatory mediators. First, the neuroprotection of pioglitazone was explored. Second, the signaling transductions such as jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and the interference with these pathways by pioglitazone were investigated. Third, the effect of pioglitazone on these pathways-mediated PGE2 / nitric oxide (NO) generation was investigated. Finally, the effect of PPARγ antagonist on the inhibition of PGE2 / NO by pioglitazone was explored. The results show that LPS neurotoxicity is microglia-dependent, and pioglitazone protects neurons against LPS insult possibly by suppressing LPS-induced microglia activation and proliferation. Second, pioglitazone protects neurons from COX-2 / PGE2 mediated neuronal loss by interfering with the NF-κB and JNK, in PPARγ-independent mechanisms. Third, pioglitazone significantly inhibits LPS-induced iNOS / NO production, and inhibition of LPS-induced iNOS protects neuron. Fourth, inhibition p38 MAPK reduces LPS-induced NO generation but no effect is found upon JNK inhibition, and pioglitazone inhibits p38 MAPK phosphorylation induced by LPS. In addition, pioglitazone increases PPARγ phosphorylation, followed by the increased PI3K/Akt phosphorylation. Nevertheless, inhibition of PI3K increases LPS-induced p38 MAPK phosphorylation. Inhibition of PI3K eliminates the inhibitive effect of pioglitazone on the LPS-induced NO production, suggesting that the inhibitive effect of pioglitazone on the LPS-induced iNOS and NO might be PI3K-dependent.

No description available.

Curiosity drives many of our daily pursuits and interactions; yet, we know surprisingly little about how it works. Here, I harness an idea implied in many conceptualizations of curiosity – that information has value in and of itself. Reframing curiosity as the motivation to obtain reward – where the reward is information – allows me to leverage major advances in theoretical and computational mechanisms of reward-motivated learning. Using willingness to wait, an established measure of reward-motivated behavior, I test the reward value of information, finding that people are more willing to wait for information about which they’re more curious. I then provide new evidence supporting several predictions that emerge from this information-as-reward framework. In Chapter 1, I examine whether the valence of information affects its reward value, finding an asymmetric effect of positive vs. negative information, with positive valence associated with both enhanced curiosity and enhanced long-term memory for information. I then test an idea drawn from computational and neurobiological accounts of reward learning, which suggest that it is not the absolute value of information that drives learning, but, rather, the gap between the reward expected and the reward received. By asking people to rate both their curiosity about a question and their satisfaction with the answer, I obtain measures of the values of the reward expected (curiosity) and the reward received (satisfaction) and find that the discrepancy between the two – the information prediction error – facilitates learning. These findings suggest a conceptual correspondence between dopaminergic mechanisms of reward learning and curiosity. Aging is associated with decrements in dopaminergic functioning, but it is unclear whether these deficits extend to curiosity, as few behavioral investigations of curiosity and aging exist. In Chapter 2, I, therefore, sought to explore the effects of aging on curiosity, providing behavioral evidence that curiosity is not diminished in aging, but, rather, that it is enhanced. These findings also revealed that older adults are more likely to wait for more positive information, consistent with existing theories of emotional processing. In Chapter 3, I sought to test whether the dopaminergic reward system, particularly the striatum, plays a necessary and causal role in curiosity by examining curiosity in patients with Parkinson’s disease, a neurological disorder characterized by dopamine depletion in the striatum and striatal dysfunction. I provide evidence for diminished curiosity in people with Parkinson’s disease, relative to age- and education-matched controls. In particular, I find that participants with Parkinson’s disease are less likely to wait for lower-value rewards, i.e., information about which they’re less curious. Taken together, these results support the idea that information functions as a reward – much like money or food – guiding choices and driving learning in systematic ways.

La maladie de Parkinson (MP) se caractérise par des troubles moteurs d'évolution progressive, conséquence de la dégénérescence des neurones dopaminergiques de la substance noire. Dans cette maladie, le vieillissement est un facteur de prédisposition majeur. Au cours de ma thèse, j'ai examiné dans un premier temps, les modèles in vivo utilisés au laboratoire pour étudier la MP chez la drosophile, à savoir l'expression de l'α-synucléine et l'intoxication au paraquat. J'ai ainsi contribué à l'identification d'une sous-population de neurones dopaminergiques impliquée dans les effets locomoteurs de l'α-synucléine et à la mise en évidence du rôle d'un récepteur dopaminergique de type D1 dans la neurotoxicité du paraquat. J'ai ensuite montré que l'activité des neurones dopaminergiques accélère la sénescence et diminue la durée de vie des drosophiles en contribuant de manière significative à la production des DRO dans le cerveau. Enfin, nous avons identifié et caractérisé chez la drosophile une protéine homologue de LAMP-2A, le récepteur lysosomal de l'autophagie médiée par les chaperonnes (AMC), et démontré que l'augmentation de la clairance neuronale des protéines cytosoliques par l'expression du LAMP-2A humain ou de son homologue de drosophile a des effets positifs sur le déclin locomoteur lié à l'âge et la résistance aux facteurs de la MP, mais qu'elle n'augmente pas la longévité. Ces résultats suggèrent que l'AMC est un mécanisme conservé chez la drosophile et que son activation protège contre le stress oxydatif et le vieillissement neuronal. / Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by progressive motor disorders resulting in dopaminergic neurons degeneration in the substantia nigra. In this pathology, aging is a major predisposing factor. During my thesis, I examined initially, in vivo models used in the laboratory to study the PD in Drosophila, namely the expression of α-synuclein and paraquat. I have contributed to the identification of dopaminergic neurons subpopulation involved in locomotor effects of α-synuclein and highlighting the role of a dopamine D1-like receptor in neurotoxicity of paraquat. I then shown that the activity of dopaminergic neurons accelerated senescence and decreases Drosophila lifespan by contributing significantly to the production of ROS in the brain. Finally, we identified and characterized Drosophila homologous of LAMP-2A protein, involves in autophagy-mediated chaperone (AMC), and demonstrated that the increase in neuronal clearance of cytosolic proteins by the expression human LAMP-2A or its Drosophila homologue has positive effects on the locomotor decline associated with aging and resistance against PD factors, but it does not increase longevity. These results suggest that the CMA is a conserved mechanism in Drosophila and its activation protects against oxidative stress and neuronal aging.

Les homéoprotéines sont des facteurs de transcription qui en plus de leur rôle important durant le développement des métazoaires, bénéficient de fonctions autonome et non autonome-cellulaire dans le cerveau adulte. Parmi ces homéoprotéines, Engrailed1/2 (collectivement Engrailed) est exprimée dans les neurones dopaminergiques mésencéphaliques adulte, ceux-là même qui dégénèrent dans la maladie de Parkinson. Chez les souris délétées d’une copie du gène (En1+/-), une dégénérescence progressive des neurones dopaminergiques s’accompagne de symptômes moteurs et non moteurs rappelant la maladie de Parkinson, ce qui pourrait faire de ces souris un modèle nouveau et intéressant de cette maladie neurodégénérative. Des expériences de transduction de la protéine En1 dans les cellules du mésencéphale de souris démontrent son effet neuroprotecteur dans des modèles toxicologiques de la maladie de Parkinson et chez les souris En1+/-, menant à l’hypothèse qu’Engrailed est important dans la physiopathologie de cette maladie. L’essentiel de ce travail de thèse s’inscrit dans la compréhension des mécanismes d’action de l’homéoprotéine Engrailed dans les neurones dopaminergiques mésencéphaliques. L’activité physiologique importante de ces neurones et le stress métabolique oxydant qui est généré touche plusieurs compartiments cellulaires, dont le noyau. La stabilité du génome semble être un aspect majeur de l’action d’Engrailed dans ces neurones. D’abord contre les effets délétères du stress oxydatif sur l’intégrité de l’ADN et la structure de la chromatine, ensuite, contre l’activité génotoxique des éléments transposables LINE-1. / Homeoproteins are a major class of transcription factors that exert some of their functions through non-cell autonomous activity, due to their ability to transfer between cells. Two of these homeoproteins, En1 and En2 (collectively Engrailed) are responsible for midbrain dopaminergic (mDA) neuron development, and maintenance during adulthood. En1+/- mice display a selective and progressive degeneration of the mDA neurons, reminiscent of Parkinson disease (PD). Engrailed infusion confers neurotection against cell death in several mouse models of PD, leading to the hypothesis that Engrailed could be implicated in the physiopathology of the disease. To dissect the mechanisms underlying Engrailed-mediated protection, the transcriptome of mDA neurons in En1+/- was analyzed. It was found that the loss of one En1 allele leads to severe alterations in the expression of DNA damage response and chromatin remodeling genes. The same alterations were detected and amplified in an acute mouse model of oxidative stress, suggesting that mDA neurons from En1+/- mice are less resistant to oxidative stress and, conversely, that Engrailed may protect them against oxidative stress. Indeed, Engrailed transduction into mDA neurons saves them from cell death and restores all DNA damage and epigenetic marks. A second mechanism neuroprotection by Engrailed concerns LINE-1 elements. These retrotransposons have the ability to create genomic instability through their endonuclease activity. Their direct repression by Engrailed could be part of a general protective activity against genomic instability.

Le profil d'activité des neurones dopaminergiques semble fortement évoluer au cours des premières semaines post-natales, faisant intervenir des modifications des propriétés intrinsèques et synaptiques, mais la connaissance des mécanismes à l'origine de ces changements et de leur cinétique est encore parcellaire.Dans un premier article, nous avons caractérisé le profil d'expression des sous-unités des principaux canaux ioniques sensibles au potentiel somato-dendritiques des neurones dopaminergiques au cours des premières semaines de développement post-natal. Nous avons pu décrire les principaux changements d'expression de ces canaux entre P6, P21 et P40. Dans un second article, nous avons défini l'évolution du comportement électrophysiologique des neurones dopaminergiques lors des 4 premières semaines postnatales. Nous avons pu montrer que l'acquisition du phénotype électrique "mature" des neurones dopaminergiques implique essentiellement deux transitions développementales, intervenant respectivement entre P3 et P5 puis entre P9 et P11.Enfin dans une troisième étude, nous avons tenté de déterminer les principaux changements morphologiques intervenant au cours des premières semaines post-natales et de définir leur impact sur le profil électrophysiologique des neurones dopaminergiques. Nos résultats suggèrent que la morphologie de l'axone et du segment initial de l'axone changent fortement au cours des trois premières semaines post-natales.Nous avons ainsi pu caractériser les principales transitions développementales intervenant dans l'acquisition du phénotype électrique des neurones dopaminergiques ainsi que les changements morphologiques et biophysiques associés. / The firing pattern of dopaminergic neurons seems to strongly evolve during the first postnatal weeks, involving changes in intrinsic and synaptic properties, but our knowledge of the mechanisms underlying these changes and their precise timecourse is still fragmented.In a first study, we characterized the expression profile of several somato-dendritic voltage-gated ion channels in dopaminergic neurons during postnatal development. Our results describe the major changes in expression of these ion channels occurring between P6, P21 and P40.In a second study, we described the modifications in electrophysiological behavior of dopaminergic neurons across the first four postnatal weeks. We show that the acquisition of the mature electrical phenotype of dopaminergic neurons mainly involves two developmental transitions occurring between P3 and P5 and then between P9 and P11, respectively.Finally, in a third study, we attempted to define the major morphological changes occurring during early postnatal development and to measure their impact on the electrophysiological profile of dopaminergic neurons. Our results suggest that the morphology of the axon and the axon initial segment strongly change during the first three postnatal weeks, even though these changes do not seem to significantly influence the excitability of dopaminergic neurons or the shape of their action potential.We were able to characterize the main developmental transitions leading to the acquisition of the mature electrical phenotype of dopaminergic neurons, and to describe some of the biophysical and morphological changes associated with this electrophysiological maturation.