Irradiadores comerciais de grande porte são projetados para processarem grandes quantidades de produtos com altas doses, por exposição à radiação gama. A irradiação em escala industrial é efetuada de forma dinâmica, em que os produtos percorrem um caminho em torno de uma fonte de radiação, geralmente de 60Co, cuja atividade é da ordem de TBq a PBq (kCi a MCi). A dose será diretamente proporcional ao tempo transcorrido pelo material para percorrer este trajeto em torno da fonte. Entretanto, em algumas situações, principalmente para pesquisas ou processos de validação de clientes seguindo a norma ISO 11137, se faz necessário irradiar pequenas amostras com doses fracionadas na posição de irradiação estática. Nesta posição as amostras são colocadas dentro da sala de irradiação a uma distância fixa da fonte e as doses recebidas são determinadas utilizando-se dosímetros. Portanto, a dose somente será conhecida depois da irradiação, pela leitura dos mesmos. Entretanto, em irradiadores industriais, diferentes tipos de produtos com diferentes densidades atravessam o caminho entre a fonte e a posição de irradiação estática, onde estão as amostras. Conseqüentemente, a taxa de dose variará dependendo da densidade do produto, que está sendo irradiado dinamicamente. Uma metodologia adequada seria monitorar a dose recebida pelas amostras em tempo real, medindo a dose por meio de um detector de radiação, com uma melhor precisão e exatidão. Neste trabalho foi desenvolvida uma câmara de ionização cilíndrica de 0.9 cm3, para monitorar as altas doses recebidas por amostras em tempo real, na posição de irradiação estática de um irradiador gama de 60Co. Os gases de nitrogênio e de argônio a pressão de 10exp5 Pa (1 bar) foram utilizados para preencherem a câmara de ionização e determinar uma configuração de trabalho apropriada, para o detector ser utilizado em medidas de altas doses. Cabos de isolação mineral foram soldados diretamente ao corpo da câmara de ionização, para a transmissão do sinal gerado pelo detector até a eletrônica associada, distante cerca de 20 m. O sinal obtido foi cerca de 100 vezes maior do que o ruído de fundo. Este sistema dosimétrico foi testado em um irradiador gama de categoria I e na posição de irradiação estática de um irradiador de grande porte, em que diferentes taxas de dose foram obtidas utilizando materiais absorvedores. Foi encontrada uma boa linearidade do detector entre a dose e a carga, independentemente das diferentes taxas de dose. As incertezas de todas as curvas ficaram abaixo dos +/- 5 %, valor de incerteza máxima recomendada para um sistema dosimétrico de rotina. A câmara de ionização desenvolvida se mostrou adequada para ser utilizada como um dosímetro em tempo real, independente da degradação do espectro causada pela absorção dos fótons da fonte de 60Co, pelo material em irradiação dinâmica. / Industrial gamma irradiators facilities are designed for processing large amounts of products, which are exposed to large doses of gamma radiation. The irradiation, in industrial scale, is usually carried out in a dynamic form, where the products go through a 60Co gamma source with activity of TBq to PBq (kCi to MCi). The dose is estimated as being directly proportional to the time that the products spend to go through the source. However, in some situations, mainly for research purposes or for validation of customer process following the ISO 11137 requirements, it is required to irradiate small samples in a static position with fractional deliver doses. The samples are put inside the irradiation room at a fixed distance from the source and the dose is usually determined using dosimeters. The dose is only known after the irradiation, by reading the dosimeter. Nevertheless, in the industrial irradiators, usually different kinds of products with different densities go through between the source and the static position samples. So, the dose rate varies in function of the product density. A suitable methodology would be to monitor the samples dose in real time, measuring the dose on line with a radiation detector, which would improve the dose accuracy and avoid the overdose. A cylindrical ionization chamber of 0.9 cm3 has been developed for high-doses real-time monitoring, during the sample irradiation at a static position in a 60Co gamma industrial plant. Nitrogen and argon gas at pressure of 10exp5 Pa (1bar) was utilized to fill the ionization chamber, for which an appropriate configuration was determined to be used as a detector for high-dose measurements. To transmit the signal generated in the ionization chamber to the associated electronic and processing unit, a 20 m mineral insulated cable was welded to the ionization chamber. The signal to noise ratio produced by the detector was about 100. The dosimeter system was tested at a category I gamma irradiator and at an industrial irradiation plant in static position, using different absorbing materials. A good linearity of the detector was found between the dose and the accumulated charge, independently of the different dose rates caused by absorbing materials. The uncertainties for all curves were less than 5%, which is recommended for a dosimetric system routine. The developed ionization chamber showed to be suitable as a dosimeter on line, independently of the spectrum degradation caused by the absorption of the 60Co photons in the material under dynamic irradiation.

Os órgãos de saúde internacionais e nacionais, como o Ministério da Saúde na portaria 453/98 da Vigilância Sanitária, exigem que a Dose de Entrada na Pele seja avaliada para cada equipamento mamográfico através da leitura de um sistema câmara de ionização-eletrómetro corrigida pelo fator de retroespalhamento. Ao não existir menção explícita na portaría de valores utilizáveis para o fator de retroespalhamento, este trabalho visa à determinação experimental do fator de retroespalhamento, através da utilização dos dosímetros termoluminescentes TLD-100. No estudo são verificadas as dependências geométricas e espectrais do fator de retroespalhamento, assim como do valor da Dose de Entrada na Pele, e da Dose em Profundidade, correspondentes com as técnicas radiográficas empregadas nos exames mamográficos convencionais de rotina. Foram avaliados feixes na faixa de 0,35 mmAl até 0,43 mmAl, tensões do tubo de 25kV, 28kV, 30kV, e 32kV, assim como os três tamanhos de campo disponíveis no Mamógrafo Senographe DMR utilizado, e distancias focofilme iguais a 56cm, 61cm e 66cm. Os resultados obtidos foram comparados com publicações existentes, as quais apresentam resultados obtidos através de Simulação Monte Carlo, câmaras de ionização, e dosímetros TLD-100. Os resultados obtidos neste trabalho permitem estabelecer e discutir as dependências das grandezas dosimétricas estudadas com a Camada Semi-Redutora, tensão do tubo, combinação ânodo-filtro, tamanho de campo, distância foco-filme e espessura da mama. / National and international health organizations such as the Brazilian Ministry of Health, through its Secretary of Health Surveillance establishes in the publication Nº 453/98 that in all mammographic equipments must be evaluated the entrance-skin dose through the readings of an ionization chamber-electrometer system corrected by the backscatter factor, among others factors. Nevertheless, there is no explicit mention for useful values of backscatter factor in this document; the main aim of this work is the experimental determination of backscatter factor through the use of TLD-100 dosimeters. In this study, the geometric and spectral dependencies of the backscatter factor, entrance-skin dose and the in-depth dose were evaluated, corresponding to the most radiographic techniques employed in conventional mammographic procedures, i.e., beam qualities in the range of 0.35 mmAl to 0.43 mmAl, tube voltages from 25kV to 32kV, focus-film distances from 56cm to 66cm, and three field sizes were evaluated. Our results were compared with those previously published obtained through Monte Carlo simulation, ionization chambers and TLD dosimeters. The results obtained in this work allow studying the dependency of the mentioned dosimetric quantities with the half-value layer, tube voltage, anode-filter combination, field size, focusfilm distance and breasting thickness of the breast.

Irradiadores comerciais de grande porte são projetados para processarem grandes quantidades de produtos com altas doses, por exposição à radiação gama. A irradiação em escala industrial é efetuada de forma dinâmica, em que os produtos percorrem um caminho em torno de uma fonte de radiação, geralmente de 60Co, cuja atividade é da ordem de TBq a PBq (kCi a MCi). A dose será diretamente proporcional ao tempo transcorrido pelo material para percorrer este trajeto em torno da fonte. Entretanto, em algumas situações, principalmente para pesquisas ou processos de validação de clientes seguindo a norma ISO 11137, se faz necessário irradiar pequenas amostras com doses fracionadas na posição de irradiação estática. Nesta posição as amostras são colocadas dentro da sala de irradiação a uma distância fixa da fonte e as doses recebidas são determinadas utilizando-se dosímetros. Portanto, a dose somente será conhecida depois da irradiação, pela leitura dos mesmos. Entretanto, em irradiadores industriais, diferentes tipos de produtos com diferentes densidades atravessam o caminho entre a fonte e a posição de irradiação estática, onde estão as amostras. Conseqüentemente, a taxa de dose variará dependendo da densidade do produto, que está sendo irradiado dinamicamente. Uma metodologia adequada seria monitorar a dose recebida pelas amostras em tempo real, medindo a dose por meio de um detector de radiação, com uma melhor precisão e exatidão. Neste trabalho foi desenvolvida uma câmara de ionização cilíndrica de 0.9 cm3, para monitorar as altas doses recebidas por amostras em tempo real, na posição de irradiação estática de um irradiador gama de 60Co. Os gases de nitrogênio e de argônio a pressão de 10exp5 Pa (1 bar) foram utilizados para preencherem a câmara de ionização e determinar uma configuração de trabalho apropriada, para o detector ser utilizado em medidas de altas doses. Cabos de isolação mineral foram soldados diretamente ao corpo da câmara de ionização, para a transmissão do sinal gerado pelo detector até a eletrônica associada, distante cerca de 20 m. O sinal obtido foi cerca de 100 vezes maior do que o ruído de fundo. Este sistema dosimétrico foi testado em um irradiador gama de categoria I e na posição de irradiação estática de um irradiador de grande porte, em que diferentes taxas de dose foram obtidas utilizando materiais absorvedores. Foi encontrada uma boa linearidade do detector entre a dose e a carga, independentemente das diferentes taxas de dose. As incertezas de todas as curvas ficaram abaixo dos +/- 5 %, valor de incerteza máxima recomendada para um sistema dosimétrico de rotina. A câmara de ionização desenvolvida se mostrou adequada para ser utilizada como um dosímetro em tempo real, independente da degradação do espectro causada pela absorção dos fótons da fonte de 60Co, pelo material em irradiação dinâmica. / Industrial gamma irradiators facilities are designed for processing large amounts of products, which are exposed to large doses of gamma radiation. The irradiation, in industrial scale, is usually carried out in a dynamic form, where the products go through a 60Co gamma source with activity of TBq to PBq (kCi to MCi). The dose is estimated as being directly proportional to the time that the products spend to go through the source. However, in some situations, mainly for research purposes or for validation of customer process following the ISO 11137 requirements, it is required to irradiate small samples in a static position with fractional deliver doses. The samples are put inside the irradiation room at a fixed distance from the source and the dose is usually determined using dosimeters. The dose is only known after the irradiation, by reading the dosimeter. Nevertheless, in the industrial irradiators, usually different kinds of products with different densities go through between the source and the static position samples. So, the dose rate varies in function of the product density. A suitable methodology would be to monitor the samples dose in real time, measuring the dose on line with a radiation detector, which would improve the dose accuracy and avoid the overdose. A cylindrical ionization chamber of 0.9 cm3 has been developed for high-doses real-time monitoring, during the sample irradiation at a static position in a 60Co gamma industrial plant. Nitrogen and argon gas at pressure of 10exp5 Pa (1bar) was utilized to fill the ionization chamber, for which an appropriate configuration was determined to be used as a detector for high-dose measurements. To transmit the signal generated in the ionization chamber to the associated electronic and processing unit, a 20 m mineral insulated cable was welded to the ionization chamber. The signal to noise ratio produced by the detector was about 100. The dosimeter system was tested at a category I gamma irradiator and at an industrial irradiation plant in static position, using different absorbing materials. A good linearity of the detector was found between the dose and the accumulated charge, independently of the different dose rates caused by absorbing materials. The uncertainties for all curves were less than 5%, which is recommended for a dosimetric system routine. The developed ionization chamber showed to be suitable as a dosimeter on line, independently of the spectrum degradation caused by the absorption of the 60Co photons in the material under dynamic irradiation.

Many radiation detection programs use bio-assays, whole-body counters, or air sampling to estimate internal doses. This study examines the possibility of using a common external thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD) badge as a device for detecting inhaled radionuclides through radiation those radionuclides emit which escape the body. The three common radionuclides chosen for modeling due to their varying decay modes and use or production in the nuclear industry were Cs-137, U-238, and Sr-90. These three radionuclides were modeled for biological and radiological removal in the dynamic systems modeling program of STELLA II and modeled for TLD dose per organ in the geometry and radiation simulation program of MCNP. The results show that none of the nuclides in the study can be detected at air concentrations below regulatory limits for acute inhalation exposures. To achieve a detectable dose from an 8-hour work exposure, with a 90-day wait until the TLD is read, the airborne concentrations for the inhalation classes that produced the most dose per Bq would be 37.9 kBq/m3, 146 MBq/m3, and 1.67 MBq/m3 for Cs-137, U-238, and Sr-90, respectively.

The effects of high levels of radiation are frequently studied, but the effects of very lowdose irradiation are still unknown even in today?s technology-driven world. A study recently carried out at Texas A

Modeling and understanding the doses around the neutron generator provides insightful data in regard to radiation safety and protection precautions. Published data can be used to predict doses, but realistic data for the Nuclear Engineering Teaching Laboratory’s Thermo MP 320 Neutron Generator helps health physicists more accurately predict dose rates and protect experimenters against exposure. The goal was to create a model inclusive of the entire setup and room where the neutron generator is housed. Monte Carlo N-Particle (MCNP) Code reigns as the preferred method for modeling radiation transport and was utilized to model the transport of neutrons within the current configuration of the 14 MeV neutron generator facility. This model took into account all shielding materials and their respective dimensions and locations within the concrete room. By utilizing tallies and tally modifiers, the model predicts dose rates that can be used with experimental factors such as irradiation time and flux to predict a dose in millirem. Validation experiments were performed in the current setup using Landauer Luxel®+ with Neutrak dosimeters placed in strategic locations to record the neutron dose vi received as well as a Ludlum Model 42-41 PRESCILA neutron probe to predict dose rates. The dosimeters and PRESCILA measurement locations matched the positions of the point detector tallies in MCNP. After laboratory analysis, a comparison was performed between the model output and the dosimeter and PRESCILA values to successfully validate the accuracy of the model. / text

Radiation therapy is an important method to treat cancer with the aim to deliver as high doses as reasonably achievable to the tumor while protecting the surrounding healthy tissue and organs at risk, OARs. Therefore, it is essential to have high accuracy in the dose delivered clinically and quality assurances are required. In the meantime, radiation therapy techniques are becoming more advanced and complex, introducing a significant risk of random and systematic errors that needs to be investigated. Hence, the need of independent dose verifications has increased. The purpose of the present work is to design and create a mailed audit system for external evaluation of the dose to water in relevant points in a phantom, including influences from the whole treatment chain, from computed tomography, CT, scanning, to contouring of structures, treatment planning and treatment delivery. The measurements were performed using an anthropomorphic Polymethyl methacrylate, PMMA, phantom designed to be relevant for the head-and-neck region containing inserts corresponding to tumour, salivary glands and medulla made of PMMA and that are easily distinguishable from the surroundings for contouring. Inhomogeneities of both Teflon, corresponding to the spinal cord, and air were also included. Pellet shaped electron paramagnetic resonance, EPR, dosimeters made of lithium formate with a diameter of 4.5 mm and height of 5 mm were made for the measurements. The dosimeters can be placed in various positions in the different structures of the phantom using PMMA tubes and can be analyzed using a spectrometer. In order to test the precision and accuracy of the EPR dosimetry method, measurements with three blind tests were performed simultaneously with an ionization chamber for comparison of absorbed doses. For the audit measurement, the audit phantom was CT scanned twice both with a Siemens CT scan and GE (General Electric)) CT scan for comparison of Hounsfield Units, HU, and dose distributions. The target and the OARs were contoured in the treatment planning system, TPS, (Varian, Eclipse) and a dynamic Intensity modulated radiation therapy, IMRT, treatment plan was created. The treatment plan consisted of seven coplanar 6 MV fields giving the target a dose of 5 Gy delivered with a Varian, Clinac iX accelerator. The absorbed doses to water were determined in seven locations: three points in the target, one in each parotis, one in the medulla and one in the air cavity. The absorbed doses were determined using the signal from the EPR dosimeters and were compared to the planned doses. Also, the measured and reconstructed volumes of the structures were compared. The blind tests doses obtained from the EPR dosimeters agreed with the results obtained from the ionization chamber within 1% and are well below the calculated uncertainties (1 SD) in the EPR measurements. The absorbed doses and the dose distributions were not affected by any spread in HU and the absorbed doses had an agreement within 0.5% in comparison between the Siemens and GE CT studies. The determined doses agreed with planned doses within 4% for all the structures except the air cavity. This deviation is not covered by the calculated standard uncertainty. However, the deviation does fall within two standard deviations, corresponding to a confidence interval of 95%. Also the measured and planned volumes had an agreement within 2.5% for smaller structures and within 5% for larger structures. Repeating the whole measurement chain with other dosimeter batches is required using two or three dosimeters in each measurement point for higher precision. A conclusion can be made that this work showed promising initial results for an audit system for evaluation of the dose to water in relevant points in a phantom, including influences from the whole treatment chain.

The mean glandular dose (MGD) was measured for a breast phantom by using molybdenum/molybdenum and molybdenum/rhodium target/filter combinations, at different kVp 26, 28 and 32 kilovolts. The phantom thickness was 7.5cm and was made of BR12 material. The change of dose was studied as a function of depth inside the phantom at different depths from the surface, namely 3.3, 4.3 and 5.3cm, by using TLDs. It was found that the MGD value for different combinations of beam quality (HVL) and energy (kVp) did not exceed the recommended values given by different protocols. The Mo/Rh target/filter required lower doses to achieve the same or better results compared with the Mo/Mo target/filter. The change in the surface dose as a function of kVp was more significant for Mo/Rh than for the Mo/Mo. Studying the change in dose within the breast, as a function of depth gives a better understanding of the interactions between radiation and tissue inside the breast. It should be noted that the MGD is a tool for optimization of the mammography parameters. However, the MGD should not be used directly to estimate the risk of determinable health effects from mammography. This will ultimately help to determine limits for the breast surface dose and a better understanding of cancer risk. In future work, we will try to measure the change of the dose as a function of depth by using more kVp, HVL, different breast composition and different target/filter combinations to give a wider picture for different situations.

Volumetric modulated arc therapy (VMAT) is an efficient and conformal radiation therapy technique. It accomplishes this by dynamically varying multi-leaf collimator (MLC) positions, dose rates and gantry velocity. This work investigated the effect of varying the maximum MLC speed and maximum dose rate on the quality, efficiency and accuracy of treatment plans. The Pinnacle3 SmartArc treatment planning software was used to generate plans on prostate and head and neck (H&N) sites. A range of maximum MLC leaf speeds (0.55 cm/s to 2.20 cm/s) and maximum dose rates (200 MU/min to 600 MU/min) restrictions were applied to each plan to investigate their effect on the treatment quality, efficiency and accuracy. Each plan had their monitor units (MU) per fraction, delivery time, mean dose rate and leaf speed analysed. The dose volume histogram (DVH) data was used in the assessment of the conformity, homogeneity and plan quality. The treatments were delivered on Varian iX accelerator equipped with 120-leaf millennium MLC. Quality assurance measurements were performed using the ArcCHECK™ 3D diode array and results were assessed based on gamma analysis of dose fluence maps, beam delivery statistics and Dynalog data. The number of VMAT fields was found to be a key factor in how significant the maximum MLC leaf speed affected the plan parameters investigated. Single arc treatments were shown to have lower MU, dose rate and plan quality, while also exhibiting a slight increase in estimated delivery time. For dual arc treatments, MU, delivery time, dose rate and plan quality were largely independent of the maximum MLC speed allowed. The QA showed that higher MLC leaf speeds were prone to an increase in the discrepancy between planned and delivered control point (CP) fluence and higher MLC positioning errors. None of these were at a clinically significant level, and the overall fluence distribution and point dose comparisons were independent of maximum MLC leaf speed. The only clinically significant effect that modulation of the maximum dose rate had was on the delivery time. Lower maximum dose rates resulted in longer treatment delivery, which is an important consideration in minimising the intra-fractional motion during treatment. The results of the MLC leaf speed evaluation showed that the lower the maximum leaf speed the more accurate the delivered treatment, -however the quality of the plan is reduced. This indicates that there could be an optimum maximum MLC leaf speed which produces high quality plans that can be accurately delivered. Based on this work a maximum MLC leaf speed of 1.38 cm/s was shown to have no reduction in plan quality however it showed improvement in delivery accuracy. There was no justification found for reducing the maximum dose rate below the recommended 600 MU/min.

The mean glandular dose (MGD) was measured for a breast phantom by using molybdenum/molybdenum and molybdenum/rhodium target/filter combinations, at different kVp 26, 28 and 32 kilovolts. The phantom thickness was 7.5cm and was made of BR12 material. The change of dose was studied as a function of depth inside the phantom at different depths from the surface, namely 3.3, 4.3 and 5.3cm, by using TLDs. It was found that the MGD value for different combinations of beam quality (HVL) and energy (kVp) did not exceed the recommended values given by different protocols. The Mo/Rh target/filter required lower doses to achieve the same or better results compared with the Mo/Mo target/filter. The change in the surface dose as a function of kVp was more significant for Mo/Rh than for the Mo/Mo. Studying the change in dose within the breast, as a function of depth gives a better understanding of the interactions between radiation and tissue inside the breast. It should be noted that the MGD is a tool for optimization of the mammography parameters. However, the MGD should not be used directly to estimate the risk of determinable health effects from mammography. This will ultimately help to determine limits for the breast surface dose and a better understanding of cancer risk. In future work, we will try to measure the change of the dose as a function of depth by using more kVp, HVL, different breast composition and different target/filter combinations to give a wider picture for different situations.