Fuel cells are the tools which convert chemical energy into electricity directly by the effective utilization of hydrogen and oxygen (or air). One of the most important barriers for the fuel cell commercialization is the durability of the fuel cell components in the long term operations. In this study, the durability of the PEM fuel cell electrocatalysts were investigated via cyclic voltammetry (CV) and rotating disk electrode (RDE) experiments in order to determine the hydrogen oxidation reaction (HOR) and oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) which corresponds to the half cell reactions in the fuel cell. PEM fuel cell electrodes mainly composed of carbon supported Pt catalysts. In long term operations due to Pt dissolution and carbon corrosion some properties of the electrocatalysts can be changed. Performance losses in catalysts mainly depend on / i) decrease in the total metal surface area (SA) and the electrochemically active surface area (ESA) due to the increase in the particle size ii) decrease in the tafel slope potential in ORR and iii) increase in carbon corrosion. In this study, these properties were examined via accelerated degradation tests performed in CV and RDE. The catalysts having different Pt loadings, synthesized with different ink compositions, pH values and microwave durations were investigated. The commercial catalysts having Pt loadings of 20, 50 and 70 (wt %) were tried and best results were obtained for Pt/V (50 wt %) catalyst. Different carbon to Nafion&reg / ratios of 4, 8, 12 in the ink composition were tried. C/N ratio of 8 gave the best result in Pt dissolution and carbon corrosion degradation tests. The catalysts prepared at different pH values of 1.4, 6.25 and 10 were tried and the catalyst prepared at pH of 10 was less degraded in Pt dissolution test and the catalyst prepared at pH of 6.25 showed better resistance to carbon corrosion. Catalysts prepared under different microwave durations of 50, 60 and 120 s were tried and the catalyst prepared at 60 s gave the best performances.

Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) and direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs) are two types of low-temperature fuel cells (LTFCs) that operate at temperatures less than 100 °C and are appealing for portable, transportation, and stationary applications. However, commercialization has been hampered by several problems such as cost, efficiency, and durability. New electrocatalysts must be developed that have higher oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) activity, lower precious metal loadings, and improved durability to become commercially viable. This dissertation investigates the development and use of new electrocatalysts for the ORR. Core-shell (shell@core) Pt@Pd[subscript x]Cu[subscript y]/C electrocatalysts, with a range of initial compositions, were synthesized to result in a Pt-rich shell atop a Pd[subscript x]C[subscript y]-rich core. The interaction between core and shell resulted in a delay in the onset of Pt-OH formation, accounting in a 3.5-fold increase in Pt-mass activity compared to Pt/C. The methanol tolerance of the core-shell Pt@PdCu₅/C was found to decrease with increasing Pt-shell coverage due to the negative potential shift in the CO oxidation peak. It was discovered that Cu leached out from the cathode has a detrimental effect on membrane-electrode assembly performance. A spray-assisted impregnation method was developed to reduce particle size and increase dispersion on the support in a consistent manner for a Pd₈₈W₁₂/C electrocatalyst. The spray-assisted method resulted in decreased particle size, improved dispersion and more uniform drying compared to a conventional method. These differences resulted in greater performance during operation of a single DMFC and PEMFC. Additionally, Pd₈₈W₁₂/C prepared by spray-assisted impregnation showed DMFC performance similar to Pt/C with similar particle size in the kinetic region while offering improved methanol tolerance. Pd₈₈W₁₂/C also showed comparable maximum power densities and activities normalized by cost in a PEMFC. Lastly, the activation of aluminum as an effective reducing agent for the wet- chemical synthesis of metallic particles by pitting corrosion was explored along with the control of particle morphology. It was found that atomic hydrogen, an intermediate, was the actual reducing agent, and a wide array of metals could be produced. The particle size and dispersion of Pd/C produced using Al was controlled using PVP and FeCl₂ as stabilizers. The intermetallic Cu₂Sb was similarly prepared with a 20 nm crystallite size for potential use in lithium-ion battery anodes. Lastly, it was found that the shape of Pd produced with Al as a reducing agent could be controlled to prepare 10 nm cubes enclosed by (100) facets with potentially high activity for the ORR. / text

Nanoparticle-functionalized electrodes have attracted attention in areas such as energy production and storage, sensing, and electrosynthesis. The electrochemical properties of these electrodes depend upon the nanoparticle properties, e.g., core size, core morphology, surface chemistry, as well as the structure of the nanoparticle/electrode interface, including the coverage on the electrode surface, choice of electrode support, and the interface between the nanoparticle and the electrode support. Traditionally used methods of producing nanoparticle-functionalized electrodes lack sufficient control over many of these variables, particularly the nanoparticle/electrode interface. Tethering nanoparticles to electrodes with molecular linkers is a strategy to fabricate nanoparticle-functionalized electrodes that provides enhanced control over the nanoparticle/electrode structure. However, many existing tethering methods are done on catalytically active electrode supports, which makes isolating the electrochemical activity of the nanoparticle challenging. Furthermore, previous work has focused on larger nanoparticles, yet smaller nanoparticles with core diameters less than 2.5 nm are of interest due to their unique structural and electronic properties. This dissertation addresses both of these gaps, exploring small nanoparticle electrocatalysts that are molecularly tethered to catalytically inert electrodes. This dissertation first reviews and compares the methods of fabricating nanoparticle-functionalized electrodes with a defined molecular interface in the context of relevant attributes for electrochemical applications. Next, a new platform approach to bind small gold nanoparticles to catalytically inert boron doped diamond electrodes through a defined molecular interface is described, and the influence of the nanoparticle/electrode interface on the electron transfer properties of these materials is evaluated. The next two studies build upon this platform to evaluate molecularly tethered nanoparticles as oxygen electroreduction catalysts. The first of these two describes the systematic study of atomically precise small gold clusters, highlighting the influence of atomic level differences in the core size and the electrode support material on the catalytic properties. The second study extends the platform approach to study small bimetallic silver-gold nanoparticles produced on the electrode surface and highlights the influence of the structural arrangement of the metals on the catalytic activity. Finally, future opportunities for the field of molecularly tethered nanoparticle-functionalized electrodes are discussed. This dissertation includes previously published and unpublished co-authored material. / 2019-01-27

Masters of Science / The electrochemical oxidation of ammonia has attracted much attention as an efficient green method for application in direct ammonia fuel cells (DAFCs) and the production of high purity hydrogen. However, the insufficient performance and high costs of platinum has hindered the large scale application of ammonia (NH₃) electro-oxidation technologies. Therefore, there is a need for the fabrication of efficient electrocatalysts for NH₃ electrooxidation with improved activity and lower Pt loading. Owing to their unique catalytic properties, nanoalloys of platinum group metals (PGMs) are being designated as possible electrocatalysts for NH₃ oxidation. This study presents for the first time a chemical synthesis of unsupported ternary PGM based nanoalloys such as Cu@Pt@Ir with multi-shell structures and Cu-Pt-Ir mixed nanoalloys for electro-catalysis of NH3 oxidation. The nanoalloys were stabilised with polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) as the capping agent. The structural properties of the nanoalloys were studied using ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) and fourier transform infra-red (FTIR) spectroscopic techniques. The elemental composition, average particle size and morphology of the materials were evaluated by high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) coupled to energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectroscopy. High resolution scanning electron microscopy (HRSEM) was used for morphological characterisation. Additionally, scanning auger nanoprobe microscopy (NanoSAM) was employed to provide high performance auger (AES) spectral analysis and auger imaging of complex multi-layered Cu@Pt@Ir nanoalloy surface. X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectroscopy was used to investigate the crystallinity of the nanoalloys. The electrochemistry of the nanoalloy materials was interrogated with cyclic voltammetry (CV) and square wave voltammetry (SWV). The electrocatalytic activity of novel Cu-Pt-Ir trimetallic nanoalloys for the oxidation of ammonia was tested using CV. UV-Vis spectroscopy confirmed the complete reduction of the metal precursors to the respective nanoparticles. FTIR spectroscopy confirmed the presence of the PVP polymer as well as formation of a bond between the polymer (PVP) chains and the metal surface for all nanoparticles (NPs). Furthermore, HRTEM confirmed that the small irregular interconnected PVP stabilised Cu@Pt@Ir NPs were about 5 nm in size. The elemental composition of the alloy nanoparticles measured using EDX also confirmed the presence of Cu, Pt and Ir. Cyclic voltammetry indicated that both the GCE|Cu-Pt-Ir NPs and GCE|Cu@Pt@Ir NPs are active electrocatalysts for NH3 oxidation as witnessed by the formation of a well-defined anodic peak around -0.298 V (vs. Ag/AgCl). Thus the GCE|Cu-Pt-Ir NPs was found to be a suitable electrocatalyst that enhances the kinetics of oxidation of ammonia at reduced overpotential and high peak current in comparison with GCE|Cu@Pt@Ir NPs, GCE|Pt NPs, GCE|Ir NPs and GCE|Cu NPs electrocatalysts. The presence of the crystalline phases in each sample was confirmed by XRD analysis. The surface analysis of Cu@Pt@Ir nanoalloy with AES surveys revealed the presence of Pt, Ir and Cu elements in all probed spots suggesting some mixing between the layers of the nanoalloy. Yet, analysis of nanoalloys by CV and XRD confirmed the presence of Cu-Pt and Pt-Ir solid solutions in the Cu-Pt-Ir and Cu@Pt@Ir nanoalloys respectively.

Orientador: Prof. Dr. Mauro Coelho dos Santos / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Federal do ABC. Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciência e Tecnologia/Química, 2015. / No presente trabalho foram desenvolvidos eletrocatalisadores de materiais nanoestruturados à base de V/C (vanádio/carbono) para estudo da Reação de Redução de Oxigênio (RRO) por dois métodos: o Método dos Precursores Poliméricos (MPP) e o Método Sol-Gel (MSG). Estes materiais foram preparados com variação da proporção em massa de vanádio de 1%, 3%, 5% 7%, 10% e 13% em suporte de carbono Vulcan XC 72R. Para cada método foi comparada a diferença da atividade catalítica no que se refere à formação do peróxido de hidrogênio (H2O2) pela RRO via dois elétrons tendo como referência os resultados de corrente de anel obtidos nos testes dos materiais, utilizando-se a técnica de eletrodo de disco-anel rotatório. Os materiais mais promissores referentes a cada metodologia de síntese apresentaram resultados bastante semelhantes. O eletrocatalisador nanoestruturado com 3 % de vanádio em suporte de carbono produzido pelo MSG mostrou maior eficiência em relação ao Vulcan XC 72R, com a transferência de 2,2 elétrons e eletrogeração de 89% de H2O2 na RRO. Utilizando o MPP, o eletrocatalisador nanoestruturado com 7% de vanádio em carbono apresentou maior atividade catalítica, transferindo 2,2 elétrons e eletrogerando 91% de H2O2 na RRO. Os materiais foram caracterizados fisicamente por Difratometria de 10 Raios X (DRX), que indicou principalmente a formação de V2O5 na superfície do suporte, sendo que seu caráter ácido pode facilitar a formação de H2O2. As imagens obtidas por Microscopia Eletrônica de Transmissão (MET) sugerem que os materiais são amorfos e com tamanho de partículas sub-microscópicos. As proporções de vanádio que obtiveram melhores resultados para cada método foram caracterizadas por Espectroscopia Fotoeletrônica de Raios-X (XPS: X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy), sendo possível determinar a composição química da estrutura superficial da camada, confirmando a presença do V2O5 na superfície dos mesmos, bem como das espécies oxigenadas ácidas. Este fator contribuiu para o aumento da hidrofilicidade, facilitando a adsorção de gás oxigênio na superfície do eletrocatalisador, e potencializando a formação de H2O2. Ambos os materiais também foram avaliados quanto ao seu ângulo de contato e molhabilidade em relação ao carbono Vulcan XC 72R, mostrando que a adição do vanádio na superfície do carbono, em ambos os métodos, aumentou sua hidrofilicidade, e favorece a eletrogeração do H2O2. / In this work were developed electrocatalysts of nanostructured materials based on V/C (vanadium/carbon) prepared by two methods, Polymeric Precursors Method (PPM) and the Sol-Gel Method (SGM), to study the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR). These materials were prepared with 1%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10% and 13% of vanadium load on carbon Vulcan XC 72R support. For each method, the difference on catalytic activity was compared with regard to the hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) formation by ORR via two electrons. Similar results on H2O2 electrogeneration were obtained for both methods. The catalytic activity for ORR was studied using a rotating ring-disk electrode. The nanostructured electrocatalyst with 3% of vanadium on carbon produced by SGM showed greater efficacy compared to Vulcan XC 72R, with transfer of 2.2 electrons and 89% of H2O2 electrogeneration in ORR. Related to PPM, the nanostructured electrocatalyst with 7% vanadium on carbon showed higher catalytic activity, transferring 2.2 electrons and electrogenerating 91% of H2O2 in ORR. The materials were characterized physically by X-ray diffractometry (XRD), which indicated mainly the formation of V2O5 on the support surface, and its acidic character assists to the H2O2 formation. The images obtained by Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) suggest that the materials are amorphous and present 12 sub-microscopic particles size. The vanadium loads which presented the best results for each method were characterized by X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS), it being possible to determine the chemical composition of the surperficial layer structure, confirming the presence of V2O5 on the surface thereof, and the oxygenated acid species. This factor contributes to the increased hydrophilicity, facilitating the adsorption of oxygen gas on the electrocatalyst surface, and enhancing the H2O2 formation. These materials were also evaluated from the contact angle and wettability, indicating that the addition of vanadium on the carbon surface increases the hydrophilicity and promotes the increase in H2O2 electrogeneration, for both methods.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD (Chemistry) / Nanomaterials have been found to undeniably possess superior properties than bulk structures across many fields of study including natural science, medicine, materials science, electronics etc. The study of nano-sized structures has the ability to address the current world crisis in energy demand and climate change. The development of materials that have various applications will allow for quick and cost effective solutions. Nanomaterials of Sn and Bi are the core of the electronic industry for their use in micro packaging components. These nanomaterials are also used as electrocatalysts in fuel cells and carbon dioxide conversion, and as electrodes for rechargeable sodium ion batteries. There are various methods used to make these nanostructures including solid state methods, hydrothermal methods, sputtering, and vacuum deposition techniques. These methods lack the ability to control the structure of material at an atomic level to fine tune the properties of the final product. This study aims to use E-ALD technique to synthesis thin films of Sn and Bi for various energy applications, and reports the use of E-ALD in battery applications for the first time. Thin films were synthesised by developing a deposition sequence and optimising this deposition sequence by varying deposition parameters. These parameters include deposition potential, and concentration of precursor solution. The thin films were characterised using cyclic voltammetry, linear sweep voltammetry, chronoamperometry for electrochemical activity. These were also characterised using scanning electron microscope for morphology, x-ray diffraction for crystal phases, energy dispersive spectroscopy for elemental mapping, and focused ion beam scanning electron microscope for thickness. The elemental content was analysed using electron probe micro analysis and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. The electrochemical impedance charge and discharge profile were used for electrochemical battery tests.

<div><br></div><div><p>Noble metal nanoparticles have been studied extensively as heterogeneous catalysts for electrocatalytic and thermal reactions. In particular, the support material for the catalytic species is known to play a role in influencing the geometric and electronic properties of the active site as well as its catalytic performance. Polycrystalline gold electrodes have been used as a support to modify the electrocatalytic behavior of adsorbed molecular species. Here, we have studied two electrocatalytic processes- the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) and the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), using Au nanoparticle-based catalysts.</p> <p>Transition metal dichalcogenides are well-known HER catalysts that show structure-sensitive catalytic activity. In particular, undercoordinated sulfur sites at the edges of bulk materials as well as amorphous clusters and oligomers tend to show the highest reactivity. The hydrogen adsorption energy of MoS_x nanoclusters can be further tuned through the metallic support. Here, we synthesize colloidal Au@MoS₄^2-, Au@WS₄^2-and Au@MoS₄^2--WS₄^2- using a biphasic ligand-exchange method. The MoS₄^2- and WS₄^2- complexes show higher HER activity when supported on Au nanoparticles than on to a carbon control, illustrating the electronic role played by the support material.</p> <p>In the second project, Au nanoparticle cores are utilized as supports for Pd submonolayer and monolayer surfaces in order to catalyze the two-electron reduction of O₂ to generate hydrogen peroxide. Bulk surfaces of Pt and Pd are excellent catalysts for the four-electron reduction of O₂ to H₂O. In order to achieve high selectivity for H₂O₂, we postulate that the ensemble geometry of the Pd surface must be reduced to small islands or single atoms based on literature studies that have shown that large Pd ensembles are required for O–O bond cleavage. In this study, we synthesize several submonolayers surface coverages of Au@Pd core-shell nanoparticles using a biphasic ligand-exchange method. As the Pd coverage decreases from monolayer to submonolayer, the peroxide selectivity rises but is accompanied by an increase in catalytic overpotential. The highest peroxide selectivity was observed for 0.1 layers of Pd on Au, which likely exhibits the highest fraction of isolated atom and small cluster geometric ensembles of Pd.</p><br></div>

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / The widespread use of fossil energy has been most convenient to the world, while they also cause environmental pollution and global warming. Therefore, it is necessary to develop clean and renewable energy sources, among which, hydrogen is considered to be the most ideal choice, which forms the foundation of the hydrogen energy economy, and the research on hydrogen production and fuel cells involved in its production and utilization are naturally a vital research endeavor in the world. Electrocatalysts are one of the key materials for proton exchange member fuel cells (PEMFCs) and water splitting. The use of electrocatalysts can effectively reduce the reaction energy barriers and improve the energy conversion efficiency.

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