Sewage sludge is the product from wastewater treatment that mostly is considered as a waste material. However, it contains several nutrients, especially phosphorus, potassium and nitrogen which are excellent fertilizers. The downside is the harmful content it also carries with pathogens, heavy metals and a variety of organic pollutants that in many cases have unknown effects on the ecosystem. A possible solution to this problem could be to pyrolyse the sewage sludge and by that decrease the levels of heavy metals and also render both pathogens and organic pollutants harmless. In this thesis project pyrolysis of dried sewage sludge has been evaluated at temperatures 650 750, 850 and 950 °C with addition of chlorine in the form of PVC and straw. An energy balance for pyrolysis and drying of dewatered sewage sludge has also been suggested. The results of the pyrolysis evaluation indicate that cadmium concentration can be reduced significantly with increasing temperature in the product char. But also other heavy metals like lead and zinc are affected at the higher temperatures evaluated. Mercury is completely removed from the char residue. The more latent volatile metals copper, chromium and nickel cannot be reduced to lower concentrations at these temperatures. They are instead enriched under these conditions. Chlorine addition to the sludge enhances the evaporation of all heavy metals but copper, nickel and chromium. The energy balance over the system indicates that the drying process requires more energy than is released from the sludge into the pyrolysis gases. The energy carried by the pyrolysis gases is however larger than what is required to drive the pyrolysis process.

High-pressure fog (HPF) systems have advantages for greenhouse cooling compared to traditional systems, such as pad and fan. Such advantages include the potential of improving climate uniformity. Water is distributed throughout the greenhouse space thus reducing water use and energy operation costs, especially if used within naturally ventilated greenhouses. Fog cooling in combination with natural ventilation is difficult to manage, primarily because accurate estimation of air exchange rates is required to determine the precise amount of fog required. This limitation on automated control has been the main reason restricting the widespread commercial use of HPF systems. The goal of this research was to develop and implement a control strategy for a naturally ventilated greenhouse with a variable HPF system. The strategy that was developed included variable rate of fog introduced into the greenhouse, a dynamic control of the air ventilation openings, and it considered the contribution of cooling and humidification from the crop by evapotranspiration. Three evapotranspiration models, including Penman-Monteith, Stanghellini and Takakura, were calibrated and evaluated in terms of prediction accuracy. The Stanghellini model provided the best overall performance for several growing seasons and under two different evaporative cooling systems (i.e. pad and fan and natural ventilation with HPF), and was selected and implemented in the cooling control strategy. The strategy utilized enthalpy and vapor pressure deficit (VPD) of the greenhouse atmosphere for the control parameters. Using a calibrated greenhouse mechanistic climate model, a computer algorithm was created to simulate the capabilities of the proposed. The control strategy that was developed was able to maintain the greenhouse climate closer to the pre-established set points while consuming less water and energy, compared to a constant HPF system based on VPD control. Finally, the strategy was implemented in a single span research greenhouse. A four-day validation study provided good agreement for measured and simulated greenhouse climate values, as well as for water and energy use. Moreover, the strategy was able to maintain VPD around its set point for all the experiments and temperature remained around its set point when outside enthalpy was lower than the enthalpy set point.

The aim of this diploma thesis is to evaluate the data about holstein dairy cow body condition at calving and to review its effect on ketones blood level and its relation to incidence of ketosis. The monitoring took place in a selected dairy farm from October 2017 to February 2019. Body condition of 280 cows was evaluated on the day of calving by assessing the body condition score (BCS) and later on 10 days in milk the blood level of B-hydroxybutyrate was measured. Furthermore, parity, body weight in calving day, body weight on 10 days in milk, content of milk fat and protein on 10 days in milk and milk yield on 10 days in milk were monitored. Average BCS of the herd was 3,7, the maximum measured BCS value was 5, the minimum was 2. Total incidence of ketosis on herd level was 21,07 % considering ketosis if BHB 1,0 mmol.l-1. 62,7 % of that was a subclinical form of ketosis while the remaining 37,3 % was the clinical form of ketosis. Correlation analysis of the relation between parity and level of BHB in blood showed positive correlation (r=0,15, p=0,00), when cows on higher lactation had higher level of blood BHB. Positive correlation between fat/protein ratio in milk and level of BHB in blood was evaluated by correlation analysis (r=0,31 , p=0,00). The BCS at calving and BHB level on 10 days in milk showed positive correlation (r=0,14 , p=0,02). As far as negative energy balance is taken into account, the positive correlation between BCS at calving and body weight loss was confirmed (r=0,17 , p=0,00). The fact that heavier cows and cows with higher BCS mobilise more body fat reserves was confirmed by positive correlation between the body weight at calving and the body weight loss (r=0,47, p=0,00) and between the body weight at calving and the fat/protein ratio in milk (r=0,27, p=0,00). Body weight at calving had provable positive impact on the milk yield (r=0,19, p=0,00).

Objetivou-se avaliar o efeito da suplementação prolongada de grão de soja cru e integral (GSI) como fonte de ácido graxo &#937;6 sobre o desempenho produtivo, perfil metabólico, qualidade oocitária e embrionária e função imune de vacas leiteiras no período de transição e início de lactação. Foram selecionadas 44 vacas da raça Holandesa, multíparas e gestantes, com parto previsto para 90 dias após o início da avaliação e fornecimento das dietas experimentais, porém em razão da ocorrência de enfermidades metabólicas ou infecciosas (3 abortos; 3 deslocamentos de abomaso; 3 enfermidades podais; 4 distocias) 13 animais foram retirados do experimento. As vacas foram distribuídas aleatoriamente em quatro grupos experimentais diferindo entre eles o início do fornecimento de grão de soja cru e integral (GSI) durante o pré-parto. A dieta era baseada na inclusão de 12% de GSI %MS, com aproximadamente 5,1% de extrato etéreo (EE) o início de seu fornecimento foi conforme descrito a seguir: Grupo 0: Animais não receberam dieta contendo GSI no pré-parto; Grupo 30: Início do fornecimento de dieta com GSI nos 30 dias finais da gestação; Grupo 60: Início do fornecimento de dieta com GSI nos 60 dias finais da gestação; Grupo 90: Início do fornecimento de dieta com GSI nos 90 dias finais da gestação. Após o parto, todas as vacas receberam dieta única com 5,1% de EE, baseada na inclusão de 12% de GSI %MS até 90 dias de lactação. Os animais foram arraçoados de acordo com o consumo de matéria seca no dia anterior, de forma a ser mantido porcentual de sobras das dietas, diariamente, entre 5 e 10%. As amostras dos alimentos e sobras foram coletadas diariamente e armazenadas a -20ºC. Semanalmente as amostras coletadas diariamente foram misturadas e foi retirada uma amostra composta referente a um período de uma semana, a fim de mensurar o consumo de matéria seca e nutrientes. Amostras de fezes foram coletadas nos dias -56, -21, 21, 56 e 84 dias em relação ao parto, com o propósito de mensurar a digestibilidade da matéria seca e nutrientes. A produção de leite foi mensurada diariamente e para a composição dos teores de gordura, proteína, lactose e perfil de ácidos graxos amostras foram coletadas semanalmente. As amostras de sangue para análise dos metabólitos sanguíneos foram coletadas semanalmente. Amostras de sangue para mensurar a atividade do sistema imune foram coletadas na semanas -8, -4, -2, -1 em relação ao parto, parto, +1, +2, +4 e +8 semanas no período pós-parto. Nos dias 21, 42, 63 e 84 do período pós-parto foram realizadas aspirações foliculares, com posterior fertilização in vitro dos oócitos. Todas as variáveis mensuradas foram analisadas pelo procedimento PROC MIXED do SAS 9.4 através de regressão polinomial, utilizando efeito fixo de tratamento, semana, interação tratamento*semana e efeito de animal dentro de tratamento como aleatório. Utilizou nível de 5% de significância. Foi observado efeito (P<0,05) linear crescente para CEE no pré-parto. Não foi observado diferenças no CMS e nutrientes no pós-parto. Não houve alteração da digestibilidade nos períodos pré e pós-parto. Não houve alteração no balanço de energia e nitrogênio nos periodos pré e pós-parto. Não foi observado diferença na produção, composição e teor dos componentes totais do leite. No perfil de ácidos graxos do leite houve efeito (P<0,05) linear descrescente para as concentrações de C16:1cis, C18:1 cis, total de C:18 insaturado, total de AG monoinsaturados, insaturados e a relação do total de AGS:AGI. Foi observado efeito linear (P<0,05) crescente para o total de AG aturado e efeito (P<0,05) quadrático para C18:2, CLAcis9-trans11, e total de AGPI. Foi observado efeito linear crescente (P<0,05) para colesterol total, LDL no préparto e linear decrescente (P<0,05) para GGT nos períodos pré e pós-parto. Foi observado efeito quadrático (P<0,05) para HDL no pré-parto e AST no pós-parto. Em relação a atividade do sistema imune foi observado efeito linear (P<0,05) crescente para o percentual de CD3+ ativos no pós-parto, para o percentual de monócitos que produziram espécie reativa de oxigênio (ERO) no pós-parto quando foram estimulados por S.aureus e E.coli e para a intensidade de imunofluorescência de ERO para ganulócitos no pós-parto quando estimulados por S.aureus. Foi observado efeito (P<0,05) quadrático para o percentual de granulócitos, mononucleares, CD8+ ativos no pós-parto e para o percentual de granulócitos que produziram ERO no pós-parto quando estimulados por E.coli. A suplementação prolongada com GSI no pré-parto melhora a atividade do sistema imune, não melhora a qualidade oocitária e embrionária bem como não influencia negativamente os parametros produtivos de vacas leiteiras no período de transição e início de lactação / The objective was to evaluate the effect of prolonged supplementation with whole soybean grain (WSG) as a source of &#937;6 fatty acid on the productive performance, metabolic profile, oocyte and embryo quality, and immune function of dairy cows during the transition period and early lactation. Forty-four multiparous, pregnant Holstein cows, with calving predicted to 90 days after the beginning of the evaluation and supply of the experimental diets were selected. However, due to the occurrence of metabolic or infectious disorders (3 abortions, 3 displaced abomasums, 3 foot disorders, 4 dystocias), 13 animals were removed from the experiment. Cows were randomly assigned to one of four experimental groups, which differed in period of supply of whole soybean grains during the prepartum. The diet was based on 12% of WSG (%DM) and had approximately 5.1% of ether extract (EE). Diet supply was as follows: Group 0) control diet not containing WSG; Group 30) WSG supply starting 30 days before predicted calving date; Group 60) WSG supply starting 60 days before predicted calving; Group 90) WSG supply starting 90 days before predicted calving date. After calving, all cows received a single diet with 5.1% EE, based on inclusion of 12% WSG (%DM) until 90 days of lactation. Animals were fed ad libitum to ensure between 5 and 10% orts daily. Dry matter and nutrients intake were evaluated. Samples of feeds and orts were collected daily and stored at -20°C. Samples were composited weekly and analyzed for chemical and bromatological characteristics. Feces samples were collected on days -56, -21, 21, 56, 84 (related to the predicted calving), in order to measure the digestibility of dry matter and nutrients. Milk yield was measured daily and milk samples were collected weekly for evaluation of fat, protein and lactose percentages, and fatty acids profile. Blood samples were taken weekly for analysis of blood metabolites. To measure the activity of the immune system, blood samples were collected at weeks -8, -4, -2, -1 prepartum, at calving, and at weeks +1, +2, +4, +8 postpartum. On days 21, 42, 63 and 84 postpartum, follicular aspirations were performed, with subsequent in-vitro fertilization of the oocytes. All measured variables were analyzed using PROC MIXED of SAS 9.4 through polynomial regression, considering as fixed effects the dietary treatment, week and interaction treatment*week, and animal as random effect. The 5% level of significance was considered. A crescent linear effect was observed (P <0.05) for prepartum ether extract intake. There was no difference in dry matter and nutrients intake during the postpartum period. There were no differences in digestibility pre and postpartum. No difference in energy and nitrogen balance during pre and postpartum periods was observed. Milk production and composition did not differ among dietary treatments. When evaluating the milk fatty acids profile, a decreasing linear effect was noted (P<0.05) for the concentrations of C16:1 cis, C18:1 cis, total unsaturated C18, total monounsaturated fatty acids, total unsaturated fatty acids and total SFA:UFA ratio. There was an increasing linear effect (P<0.05) for the total of saturated fatty acids and a quadratic effect (P<0.05) for C18:2, CLAcis9-trans11, and total PUFA. It was observed increasing linear effect (P<0.05) for total cholesterol and LDL in the prepartum period, and decreasing linear effect (P<0.05) for GGT in the pre and postpartum. We observed a quadratic effect (P<0.05) for HDL in prepartum and for AST during the postpartum. Regarding the activity of the immune system, there was a crescent linear effect (P<0.05) for the percentage of active CD3+ in the postpartum period, for the percentage of monocytes producing reactive oxygen species (ROS) during postpartum period when stimulated by S. aureus and E. coli, and for granulocytes ROS immunofluorescence intensity during postpartum when stimulated by S. aureus. Quadratic effect was observed (P<0.05) for the percentage of granulocytes, mononuclear cells, active CD8+ in the postpartum period and the percentage of granulocytes that produced ROS when stimulated by E. coli. Prolonged supplementation with RWS in the prepartum improves the activity of the immune system, however it does not improve oocyte and embryo quality and does not adversely affect the production performance of dairy cows during the transition period and early lactation

Recent years have witnessed significant research into the acute effects of exercise on appetite, energy intake and gut hormone responses. The experiments in this thesis have further investigated this topic by examining the appetite, acylated ghrelin, peptide YY and energy intake responses to energy deficits induced via different exercise protocols and food restriction. To achieve this, 48 young healthy males (mean (SD): age 23 (3) years, body mass index 23.7 (2.7) kg.m-2, maximum oxygen uptake 52.9 (9.8) mL.kg 1.min-1) were recruited into four studies. In study one, 60 min of treadmill running at 70% of VO2 max did not stimulate any increases in appetite or daily energy intake regardless of whether the exercise was performed after breakfast or in the fasted state. In study two, six 30 s Wingate tests stimulated increases in appetite during the subsequent hours compared with 60 min of cycling at 68% of VO2 max. Differences in appetite appeared to be unrelated to changes in plasma acylated ghrelin concentrations and did not influence ad libitum energy intake. Subsequently, endurance exercise resulted in a significantly greater negative daily energy balance than sprint exercise due to a larger exercise energy expenditure. Study three revealed that appetite and energy intake did not differ from a resting control trial after either ten, 4 min cycling bouts at 85 90% of VO2 max separated by 2 min of rest or 60 min of constant cycling at 60% of VO2 max. This occurred despite elevated PYY3-36 concentrations during the hours after exercise. Finally, study four showed that an energy deficit of ~1475 kJ stimulated increases in appetite when induced via food restriction but not when achieved by an acute bout of exercise. This was associated with differences in plasma PYY3-36 concentrations but did not appear to be related to changes in circulating levels of acylated ghrelin and did not influence energy intake. This thesis has shown that appetite perceptions do not differ from a resting control trial during the hours after continuous endurance exercise. Alternatively, supramaximal cycling exercise and subtle reductions in food intake stimulated increases in appetite during the subsequent hours. Such increases in appetite do not appear to be related to changes in acylated ghrelin but may be influenced by plasma PYY3-36 concentrations. Despite differences in appetite, daily energy intake was unaffected by all interventions.

O presente estudo avaliou a influência das concentrações de ácidos graxos não esterificados (AGNE Alto vs. Baixo) no dia 44±3 pós-parto, e dos dias pós-parto nas concentrações de metabólitos (&#496;-hidroxibutirato e glicose) e na qualidade oocitária e produção in vitro de embriões de vacas Holandesas no início da lactação (até 90 dias pós-parto). O experimento foi realizado na Fazenda Santa Rita (Agrindus S/A) localizada no município de Descalvado SP. A partir da data do parto foram selecionadas 30 vacas Holandesas para serem aspiradas a cada 14 dias em cinco diferentes momentos no início da lactação (30±3, 44±3, 58±3, 72±3 e 86±3 dias pós-parto). No momento da aspiração folicular (OPU), foram realizadas as colheitas de sangue para dosagem dos metabólitos, a avaliação do escore de condição corporal (ECC) e a contagem dos folículos visualizados. Os procedimentos de produção in vitro de embriões (maturação, fertilização e cultivo) foram realizados no laboratório da Bioembryo, localizado no município de Bauru - SP. A análise estatística foi realizada pelo procedimento GLM do SAS. Não se observou efeito de tratamento (Alto AGNE = 0,45 vs. Baixo AGNE = 0,52 mmol/L; P=0,20) e de tempo (30±3 = 0,54; 44±3 = 0,43; 58±3 = 0,43; 72±3 = 0,52 e 86±3 = 0,51 mmol/L; P=0,11) para as concentrações de &#946;-hidroxibutirato. Para as concentrações de glicose não se verificou efeito do tratamento (Alto AGNE = 61,1 vs. Baixo AGNE = 63,6 mg/dL; P=0,26). No entanto, observou-se efeito de tempo para as concentrações de glicose (30±3 = 60,1; 44±3 = 63,0; 58±3 = 63,5; 72±3 = 62,1 e 86±3 = 63,0 mg/dL; P=0,03). O tratamento (Alto vs. Baixo AGNE) não influenciou a quantidade de folículos recrutados (P=0,36), oócitos totais recuperados (P=0,28) e oócitos viáveis (P=0,25). Assim como o tempo não alterou a quantidade de folículos recrutados (P=0,87), oócitos totais recuperados (P=0,42) e oócitos viáveis (P=0,44). A quantidade de oócitos grau I não foi influenciada pelo tratamento (Alto vs. Baixo AGNE; P=0,14). Porém, os dias pós-parto reduziram a sua quantidade (P=0,05). A quantidade de oócitos clivados por vaca aspirada (P=0,45) e a taxa de clivagem (P=0,95) não apresentaram diferenças estatísticas conforme as concentrações de AGNE (Alto vs. Baixo) no dia 44 pós-parto. Os dias pós-parto também não alteraram a quantidade de oócitos clivados por vaca aspirada (P=0,31) e a taxa de clivagem (P=0,80). Para a produção in vitro de embriões, a quantidade de blastocisto por vaca aspirada conforme as concentrações de AGNE (Alto = 0,4 vs. Baixo = 1,2; P=0,37) e os dias pós-parto (30±3 = 0,4; 44±3 = 0,7; 58±3 = 0,8; 72±3 = 0,9 e 86±3 = 1,2; P=0,39) não apresentaram diferenças estatísticas. Assim como, a taxa de blastocisto para os animais dos grupos (Alto AGNE = 6,2% vs. Baixo AGNE = 11,6%; P=0,51) e para os diferentes momentos pós-parto (30±3 = 4,8%; 44±3 = 8,9%; 58±3 = 10,7%; 72±3 = 10,0% e 86±3 = 12,8%; P=0,41). Conclui-se que a maior concentração de AGNE no dia 44 pós-parto em vacas Holandesas não influenciou as concentrações de &#946;-hidroxibutirato e de glicose, assim como a qualidade e a produção in vitro de embriões. No entanto, o aumento dos dias pós-parto incrementou as concentrações de glicose e reduziu a quantidade de oócitos grau I de vacas holandesas submetidas à OPU/PIV até 90 dias após o parto. / The present study evaluated the influence of the days postpartum and the concentrations of non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA - High vs. Low) on concentrations of metabolites (&#946;-hydroxybutyrate and glucose), oocyte quality and in vitro embryo production of Holstein cows during early lactation (90 days postpartum). The experiment was carried out in a commercial dairy farm (Santa Rita - Agrindus S/A), located at Descalvado - SP. At the calving moment, 30 Holstein cows were selected to be submitted to ovum pick-up (OPU) procedures each 14 days, in 5 different moments during the early lactation (30 ± 3, 44 ± 3, 58 ± 3, 72 ± 3 and 86 ± 3 days postpartum). Previously to the OPU session blood samples were collected for metabolite assay, body condition score (BCS) was recorded and the number of follicles able to be aspirated was also registered. The High and Low concentration of NEFA were stablished with the samples of day 44 ± 3 postpartum. The laboratory procedures for in vitro embryo production (in vitro maturation, fertilization and culture) were performed in the same laboratory (Bioembryo, Bauru - SP). Statistical analysis was performed by the GLM procedure of SAS. No effect was observed for different NEFA concentrations (High NEFA = 0.45 vs. Low NEFA = 0.52 mmol / L, P = 0.20), nor for days postpartum (30±3 = 0.54; 44±3 = 0.43; 58±3 = 0.43; 72±3 = 0.52 e 86±3 = 0.51 mmol/L; P=0.11) on &#946;-hydroxybutyrate concentrations. Considering glucose concentrations there was no treatment effect (High NEFA = 61.1 vs. Low NEFA = 63.6 mg / dL, P = 0.26). However, the glucose concentrations were influenced by days postpartum (30±3 = 60.1; 44±3 = 63.0; 58±3 = 63.5; 72±3 = 62.1 e 86±3 = 63.0 mg/dL; P=0.03). Treatment (High vs. Low NEFA) did not impact the number of recruited follicles (P = 0.36), total oocytes recovered (P = 0.28) and viable oocytes (P = .25). As well as, time did not alter the amount of recruited follicles (P = 0.87), total oocytes recovered (P = 0.42) and viable oocytes (P = .44). The amount of grade I oocytes was not influenced by treatment (High NEFA vs. Low NEFA, P = 0.14). However, days postpartum reduced the quantity of grade I oocytes (P = 0.05). Also, no treatment effect (High and Low NEFA) was observed for number of cleaved oocytes per OPU session (P = 0.45) and cleavage rate (P = 0.95). In the same way, days postpartum had no influence in the amount of cleaved oocytes per OPU session (P = 0.31) and cleavage rate (P = 0.80). In addition, for the in vitro embryo production, the NEFA concentrations (High NEFA = 0.4 vs. Low NEFA = 1.2, P = 0.37) and days postpartum (30±3 = 0.4; 44±3 = 0.7; 58±3 = 0.8; 72±3 = 0.9 e 86±3 = 1.2; P=0.39) did not affect the number of blastocysts per OPU session. Also, the blastocyst rate was not influenced by treatment (High NEFA = 6.2% vs. Low NEFA = 11.6%, P = 0.51) and days postpartum (30±3 = 4.8%; 44±3 = 8.9%; 58±3 = 10.7%; 72±3 = 10.0% e 86±3 = 12.8%; P=0.41). It was concluded that high concentration of NEFA on day 44 postpartum in Holstein cows did not alter the concentrations of &#946;- hydroxybutyrate and glucose, as well as, the oocyte quality and in vitro embryo production. However, the increase in days postpartum elevated the glucose concentrations and decreased the number of grade I oocytes of Holstein cows submitted to OPU and in vitro embryo production up to 90 days postpartum.

Nous étudions les flux turbulents de chaleur sensible et de chaleur latente, qui sont mal compris et mal mesurés sur les glaciers, à l'aide de campagnes de terrain déployées dans la zone d'ablation du glacier tropical du Zongo (16°S, Bolivie, 4900-6000 m) durant la saison sèche de l'hiver austral et sur le glacier alpin de Saint-Sorlin (Alpes Françaises, 45°N, 2600-3400 m) durant l'été boréal. Un mât de 6 m permettait la mesure des profils verticaux de vitesse de vent et de température de l'air et des mâts de 2 m comportaient des systèmes de covariances turbulentes (CT). Nous étudions l'évolution temporelle des flux turbulents et l'applicabilité de la méthode aérodynamique des profils en terrain complexe de montagne. Les hypothèses sont discutées via la caractérisation des régimes de vent et de la turbulence. Nous calculons ensuite les flux et les erreurs associées. Sur le Zongo, sous forçage synoptique faible, un écoulement catabatique s'installe de la fin d'après-midi jusqu'au matin, avec un maximum de vitesse de vent à environ 2 m de hauteur. Les forçages synoptiques forts s'alignent approximativement avec le glacier, provoquant un intense écoulement descendant, et dans ce cas nous n'observons pas de maximum de vitesse de vent. Souvent, autour de midi, des vents ascendants sont observés. Sur le glacier de Saint-Sorlin les forçages associés à des épisodes de Foehn ou à des dépressions se déplaçant depuis l'ouest, s'alignent approximativement avec le glacier, générant des vents forts descendants. Quand le forçage synoptique est modéré, un maximum de vitesse de vent est observé nuit et jour 50% du temps. Des vents ascendants sont observés 15% du temps, quand le forçage synoptique est faible. La couche de surface est perturbée par des tourbillons de couches externes sous vent fort, ou de lentes oscillations en écoulement catabatique. Ces perturbations influencent les flux turbulents. Les erreurs aléatoires sur la méthode des profils sont dues principalement à des incertitudes sur la température. L'erreur reste faible sur les flux moyens. La couche de surface est rarement plus épaisse que 2 m et la méthode des profils appliquée à l'aide des mesures plus obtenus plus haut sous-estime les flux de surface de 20% à 70% . Quand un maximum de vitesse de vent est observé, les flux sont sous-estimés même à 2 m. L'influence des perturbations de la couche de surface n'est pas capturée par la méthode des profils, et les flux sont environ 40% inférieurs à ceux mesurés par CT. Ces derniers sont affectés par d'importantes erreurs aléatoires, en raison d'un échantillonnage statistique insuffisant des grands tourbillons. La méthode sous-estime probablement les flux à cause d'une sous-estimation de la vitesse verticale (~15%) et de la divergence verticale des flux. Sur le glacier du Zongo, l'air de haute altitude est très sec et la sublimation (quelques mm d'eau par jour) est un important puits d'énergie à la surface. Le flux de chaleur sensible est un important gain d'énergie la nuit sous l'influence de vents forts (de 30 à 50 W m-2), car l'inversion de température est marquée. Quand un maximum de vitesse de vent est observé, les flux sont faibles (de 5 à 20 W m-2) car la vitesse du vent est faible. La somme des flux turbulents est faible dans ces deux cas car ils sont opposés et les biais se compensent. En vent ascendant, le flux de chaleur sensible est faible (<5 W m-2) car la stratification est neutre, mais le flux de chaleur latente reste important (de -25 à -35 W m-2), le flux net est donc important et les biais ne se compensent plus. Sur le glacier de Saint-Sorlin, le flux de chaleur latente est faible car l'air est humide, et le flux de chaleur sensible peut être intense (~25 W m-2) quand la vitesse du vent est élevée. Le flux net est fort par vent fort et les biais sur les flux calculés par la méthode des profils peuvent être élevés. / We study turbulent fluxes of sensible and latent heat, that are a poorly-known and difficult term to measure over glaciers, with the help of two field campaigns deployed over the ablation zone of Zongo glacier (16°S, Bolivia, 4900-6000 m.a.s.l.) during the austral winter dry season and over the Saint-Sorlin glacier (French Alps, 45°N, 2600-3400 m.a.s.l.) during the boreal summer. A 6-m mast allowing for wind speed and air temperature vertical profile measurements was installed, along with 2-m masts holding eddy-covariance systems. The focus is on the temporal evolution of turbulent fluxes and the applicability of the aerodynamic profile method in the complex terrain of high mountains. The assumptions of the method are discussed by characterizing the wind regimes and the turbulence. We then compute fluxes and associated errors. Above Zongo glacier, under weak synoptic forcing, katabatic flows are observed from late afternoon to early morning, with a wind-speed maximum at around 2 m. Strong synoptic forcing roughly aligns with the glacier, leading to strong downslope flows for which no wind-speed maximum is observed. Most of the days around noon, upslope flows are observed. On Saint-Sorlin glacier in summer, flows associated with low-pressure systems coming from the west or Foehn events roughly align with the glacier, leading to strong downslope winds. Wind-speed maxima are observed night and day, ~50% of the time, when synoptic forcing is moderate. Upslope flows are observed 15% of the time, when synoptic forcing is weak. The surface layer is disturbed by outer-layer eddies in strong flows and by slow oscillations if katabatic flow prevails. These disturbances influence turbulent fluxes. Random errors on the fluxes derived from the profile method are mainly due to temperature uncertainties. Errors remain small on the mean fluxes. The surface layer is rarely deeper than 2 m on both glaciers and the profile method with measurements made above that height underestimates the surface fluxes by 20% to 70%. When a wind-speed maximum is observed, fluxes are underestimated even at 2 m. The influence on the fluxes of the surface-layer disturbances is not captured by the profile method, and fluxes are about 40% smaller than the eddy-covariance fluxes. The latter are affected by large random errors due to inadequate statistical sampling of large-scale eddies and are probably underestimated, mainly due to vertical wind speed underestimation (~15%) and to vertical flux divergence. Above Zongo glacier, due to the dry high-elevation air, sublimation (a few millimeters w. e. per day) is a large energy loss for the surface. Sensible heat flux is a large energy gain in strong nocturnal downslope flows (from 30 to 50 W m-2) and strong winds, due to a marked temperature inversion. When a wind-speed maximum is observed, low wind speeds cause small turbulent fluxes (from 5 to 20 W m-2). The sum of turbulent fluxes is small in those two cases because the fluxes are opposed in sign and the biases mostly compensate. In upslope flows, the sensible heat flux is small (<5 W m-2) due to near-neutral stratification, but latent heat losses remain large (around -25 to -35 W m-2), so that the net turbulent flux is large and the biases do not compensate. Above Saint-Sorlin glacier, the latent heat flux remains small because the air is generally humid, whereas the sensible heat flux can be large (~25 W m-2) when wind speed is high. The net flux is large when wind speed is high, and the biases on net turbulent fluxes derived from the profiles can be significant.

O estudo consistiu de dois experimentos com o objetivo de avaliar os efeitos da acidose ruminal e restrição nutricional na ocorrência de processos inflamatórios nos animais e relacionar com as alterações na produção e composição do leite. Foram utilizadas doze vacas Holandês e Mestiças Holandês Jersey. Experimento 1: Na fase de adaptação, os animais receberam uma dieta formulada para atender 100% das necessidades nutricionais de energia e proteína. Na indução foi administrada uma dieta com restrição de 50% das necessidades em energia e proteína. Na recuperação os animais receberam uma das três dietas experimentais, para recuperar a estabilidade do leite: (1) suprimento somente de energia; (2) suprimento somente de proteína; (3) suprimento de energia e proteína. A restrição nutricional em energia e/ou proteína afeta negativamente a produção de leite, o peso vivo e o escore de condição corporal. Além de reduzir a eficiência de utilização de proteína da dieta e provocar uma maior instabilidade do leite ao teste do álcool. Entretanto, não altera o perfil sanguíneo e metabólico. Experimento 2: Os animais foram divididos em dois grupos (1) controle e (2) acidose. O delineamento experimental foi reversível simples com dois tratamentos e dois períodos experimentais. Foram analisados parâmetros referente às características físico-quimica, saúde da glândula mamária, medidas fisiológica, perfil metabólico e parâmetros sanguíneos. A indução da acidose ruminal subaguda (SARA) causou redução da produção e estabilidade do leite ao teste do álcool, pH urinário, pH fecal, pH ruminal. Entretanto, a indução a SARA não alterou os parâmetros sanguíneos avaliados. A SARA altera as características físico-químicas do leite, sem influenciar nas concentrações proteínas de fase aguda, caracterizando uma resposta inflamatória. A SARA pode acometer os animais sem apresentar mudanças no perfil sanguíneo dos mesmos. / The study consisted of two experiments with the aim of evaluating the effects of ruminal acidosis and nutritional restriction on the occurrence of inflammatory processes in animals and correlate with changes in milk production and composition. Twelve Holstein and cross bred Holstein and Jersey cows were used. In the first study, in the adaptation phase, the animals received a diet formulated to supply 100% of the nutritional needs of energy and protein. In the induction, a diet composed by 50% restriction of energy and protein requirements was administered. In the recuperation, the animals received one of the three experimental diets to recover milk stability: (1) only energy supply; (2) supply only of protein; (3) supply of energy and protein. The nutritional restriction in energy and / or protein can affects negatively milk production, weight and condition score body. In addition to reduce the efficiency of protein utilization of the diet and cause greater instability of the milk to the alcohol test. However, it does not changed the blood and metabolic profile. In second study, the animals were divided into two groups (1) control and (2) acidosis. The experimental design was simple reversible with two treatments and two experimental periods. Physiochemical characteristics, health of the mammary gland, physiological measures, metabolic profile and blood parameters were analyzed. Losses in milk production, reduction of alcohol stability test, urinary pH, fecal pH, ruminal pH were caused by Subacute ruminal acidosis (SARA) induction. However, induction of SARA did not changed the blood parameters evaluated. SARA changes the physical-chemical characteristics of the milk, without influencing the acute phase proteins concentrations, characterizing an inflammatory response. SARA can affect the animals without demostrate changes in the blood profile of the animals.

L'objectif ultime de ce travail de thèse consiste à établir un bilan énergétique à l'échelle du grain afin de caractériser et de vérifier la cohérence thermodynamique de modèles de comportement utilisés pour rendre compte du développement de la plasticité cristalline dans les matériaux métalliques. La première partie de ce travail a consisté à mettre en place un protocole d'élaboration du matériau permettant d'obtenir la microstructure souhaitée, compatible avec des moyens d'observations macroscopiques. Les échantillons d'aluminium à très gros grains (centimétriques) ainsi obtenus sont utilisés pour effectuer des essais cycliques durant lesquels les champs cinématiques et thermiques sont mesurés au moyen de techniques de Corrélation d'Images Numériques et de Thermographie Infra-rouge. Deux techniques de traitement d'image spécifiques ont été proposées. Elles permettent d'introduire des hypothèses sur les champs cinématiques et thermiques qui soient adaptées à la microstructure (ici continuité intra-granulaire du déplacement, de la température et du flux). Ces méthodes permettent d'accéder à des mesures complètement indépendantes d'un grain à l'autre tout en améliorant la robustesse des méthodes de mesure. Ces méthodes ont été validées numériquement en utilisant des images de synthèse sur lesquelles ont été appliqués des champs hétérogènes. Une campagne d'essais cycliques a enfin été menée sur les multi-cristaux d'aluminium élaborés. Les méthodes développées ont permis d'observer le développement de la plasticité intra-granulaire et le développement de la fissuration inter-granulaire. / The main objective of this PhD thesis is to establish an energy balance at the grain scale in order to assess the thermomechanical consistency of material models used to predict the development of crystal plasticity of metals.The first part of this work consists in setting a protocol allowing the material elaboration with the desired microstructure which is to be compatible with the use of classical macroscopic observation devices. The obtained coarse-grained aluminum samples (with centimeter grains) are used in cyclic tensile tests. During these tests, the kinematic and thermal fields are recorded with Digital Image Correlation and Infra-Red Thermography techniques.Two specific imaging techniques were developed. They allow introducing ad hoc hypotheses (i.e. consistent with microstructure) on the kinematic and the thermal fields. In this work, these hypotheses consist in intra-granular continuity conditions on the displacement, temperature and heat flux fields. These methods give independent measures on each grain while improving the robustness of the measurement methods. These methods were numerically validated using computer-generated images heterogeneously loaded.Cyclic tests were finally performed on the processed aluminum multi-crystals. The developed methods allowed the observation of the development of intra-granular plasticity and the development of inter-granular cracking.

Submitted by Sandra Pereira (srpereira@ufrrj.br) on 2018-11-23T11:46:06Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2010 - Juliano Br?s Zanetti.pdf: 621874 bytes, checksum: 7668a4e8b8cab8a537ab2b436d55b596 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-11-23T11:46:07Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2010 - Juliano Br?s Zanetti.pdf: 621874 bytes, checksum: 7668a4e8b8cab8a537ab2b436d55b596 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010-07-27 / Coordena??o de Aperfei?oamento de Pessoal de N?vel Superior, CAPES, Brasil. / The production of plant biomass for alternative renewable energy currently represents a great challenge to research. The release of CO2 from its use constitutes only the CO2 recycling that was removed from the atmosphere by photosynthesis, which in the long term, represents a valuable alternative for bio-energy. Elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum Schum.) is, among grasses, that with possibly the highest capacity for dry matter production, with other favorable characteristics for energy production. The aim of this study was to identify elephant grass genotypes with high biomass production and nitrogen accumulation under the inoculation with a mixture of N2-fixing bacteria. Two studies were conducted in Serop?dica, Rio de Janeiro State. The first experiment was conducted in a concrete tank filled with a Ndeficient Acrisol. The experimental design was randomized blocks in split plots with four replications. The plots consisted of the inoculation treatments (inoculated and uninoculated), and sub-plots for the five elephant grass genotypes: Cameroon, BAG 02, Roxo, Clone CNPGL 93 41 1 and CNPGL 91 F06-3. The second experiment was carried out on a Planosol and the two genotypes, BAG 02 and Cameroon, with inoculation treatments, inoculation + 100 kg of N ha-1, 100 kg of N ha-1 and a zero N control. The experimental design was randomized blocks in a factorial model with four replications. In these studies the following results were obtained: 1. Dry matter production (DM) ranged from 16 to 41 Mg of MS ha-1 year-1 when the varieties were grown in the Acrisol. In the Planosol the dry biomass varied between 48 and 56 Mg MS ha-1 in two crops over a 11-month period of cultivation. 2. In relation to the total N accumulated in shoots, the values ranged between 64 and 158 kg ha-1 when the genotypes were grown in Acrisol and between 297 and 441 kg ha-1 when the genotypes were cultivated in the Planosol. For these parameters, N accumulation and biomass yield, the best genotypes were: CNPGL F 06-3 and Cameroon followed by CNPGL 93 41 1 and BAG 02 genotype. 3. The C/N ratio was directly influenced by soil type, and the ratio observed in the Acrisol was approximately 50% higher when compared to the Planosol. 4. The calorific value and fiber content, cellulose, lignin and ash, which are related to the quality of the material, in general were not affected by genotype, or by treatment. The elephant grass biomass had positive qualitative and quantitative characteristics to be used for renewable energy production and the Cameron CNPGL F 06-3 genotype, followed by BAG CNPGL 93 41 02 genotype were the most promising. The genotypes studied no showed response of biomass production or N accumulation to inoculation with diazotrophic bacteria. / A produ??o de material energ?tico alternativo renov?vel, tal como a biomassa vegetal, representa hoje um dos grandes desafios para a pesquisa. No caso da biomassa, a libera??o de CO2 pelo seu uso representa apenas a reciclagem do CO2 que foi retirado da atmosfera pela fotoss?ntese, indicando que, em longo prazo, esta ser? uma das alternativas energ?ticas mais seguras. O capim-elefante (Pennisetum purpureum Schum.) est? entre as gram?neas de maior capacidade de produ??o de mat?ria seca, com caracter?sticas qualitativas favor?veis para a produ??o de energia. O objetivo deste trabalho foi identificar gen?tipos de capim-elefante para alto rendimento de biomassa, ac?mulo de N sob a inocula??o das plantas com uma mistura de bact?rias diazotr?ficas. Foram realizados dois estudos de campo localizados no munic?pio de Serop?dica, RJ. O primeiro experimento realizado em um tanque de concreto preenchido com Argissolo pobre em N dispon?vel. O delineamento experimental foi o de Blocos ao Acaso em parcelas divididas, com quatro repeti??es. As parcelas constitu?das pelos tratamentos de inocula??o (inoculado e n?o inoculado), e as sub-parcelas compostas pelos cinco gen?tipos de capim-elefante: Cameroon, BAG 02, Roxo, Clone CNPGL 93 41 1 e CNPGL 91 F06-3. No segundo experimento, realizado no campo em um Planossolo, os dois gen?tipos, BAG 02 e Cameroon foram avaliados sob os tratamentos de inocula??o, inocula??o + 100 kg de N.ha-1, 100 kg de N.ha-1, e o controle. O delineamento experimental utilizado foi o de Blocos ao Acaso em esquema fatorial com quatro repeti??es. Nestes estudos encontraram-se os seguintes resultados: 1. A produ??o de mat?ria seca (MS) que variou entre 16 e 41 Mg de MS.ha-1.ano-1, quando os gen?tipos foram cultivados no Argissolo. No Planossolo, o rendimento de biomassa seca variou entre 48 e 56 Mg.MS.ha-1 sob duas colheitas realizadas, em 11 meses de cultivo. 2. Em rela??o ao total de N acumulado na parte a?rea, os valores variaram entre 64 e 158 kg.ha-1 quando os gen?tipos foram cultivados no Argissolo, e entre 297 e 441 kg.ha-1 quando os gen?tipos foram cultivados no Planossolo. Para os par?metros, ac?mulo de N e rendimento de biomassa, os gen?tipos que mais se destacaram foram: CNPGL F 06-3 e Cameroon seguido dos gen?tipos BAG 02 e CNPGL 93 41 1. 3. A rela??o C/N foi influenciada diretamente pelo tipo de solo, sendo que no Argissolo as rela??es encontradas foram em torno de 50% maiores, quando comparadas com o Planossolo. 4. O poder calor?fico e os teores de fibra, celulose, lignina e cinzas, que est?o relacionados ? parte qualitativa do material, em geral, n?o foram influenciados pelos gen?tipos, nem pelos tratamentos avaliados. A biomassa do capim-elefante apresentou caracter?sticas qualitativas e quantitativas positivas para ser utilizado na produ??o de energia renov?vel, sendo os gen?tipos CNPGL F 06-3 e Cameron, seguido dos gen?tipos BAG 02 e CNPGL 93 41 1 os mais indicados. Os gen?tipos em estudo n?o apresentaram resposta para rendimento e acumula??o de N pela biomassa ? inocula??o com bact?rias diazotr?ficas.