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Golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos canadensis Linnaeus 1758) are declining in some areas throughout their Nearctic range (Sauer et al. 2011). This reduction is linked to changes in their habitat caused by human activities. Golden eagles inhabit an extensive range of environments (Watson 1997, Kochert et al. 2002). In the American Continent, the golden eagle's range encompasses Alaska, Canada, the United States and the Northern and Central portions of Mexico. Northern golden eagle populations migrate during winter to southern grounds, crossing international boundaries of Canada, the US and Mexico and therefore, their conservation is of trilateral concern. Golden eagles are protected by domestic laws in the three North American countries where they occur (FWCA 1997, BGEPA 1940, MBTA 1918, Lacey Act 1900, DOF 2002) and although the IUCN list the species as Least Concern, the A. c. canadensis subspecies has been protected by CITES since 1975 (Birdlife International 2012). While intensively studied in the United States, very little is known in Mexico about golden eagle ecology and their populations. As the national bird of Mexico, its conservation has been a priority for the Mexican government since its inclusion in the Endangered Species List in 1994 (SEDESOL 1994). Several threats jeopardize golden eagle populations throughout their range in North America: habitat alteration and fragmentation, electrocution, collisions with vehicles, collision with windmills and wires, poisoning from lead ingestion, drowning, shooting and trapping, and poaching for illegal wildlife trade. Mexican experts believe that a dramatic decline occurred over recent decades and that the remaining pairs have been restricted to remnant suitable habitat patches (SEMARNAP-INE 1999). Long-term survival of golden eagles largely depends on the effectiveness of current conservation efforts of habitat at a landscape level. Successful conservation and management requires accurate information on ecology of the species upon which decisions can be based. This study investigated habitat characteristics of the areas occupied by golden eagles and developed strategies for habitat management and protection to improve golden eagle viability in Chihuahua State. I surveyed a portion of Chihuahuan Desert Ecoregion in Mexico to locate golden eagle territories during 2009 and 2010. I located 30 golden eagle nesting territories and found similar composition of cover type, vegetation structure and prey indices between the territory cores and their buffer zones. Distance to most anthropogenic disturbance sources was similar between golden eagle sites and random areas (n=60). Grassland was the most common cover type, occurring in 100% of the nesting territories, and comprising 58% of the territories' area, suggesting a disproportionate use of this cover type compared to its overall availability (25% of the state area). I used landscape attributes such as topographic characteristics and human disturbances to model the probability of occurrence of golden eagles across the landscape. I used logistic regression to model the occurrence of golden eagles at two different landscape scales and selected the best model at a home range scale based on AIC values to develop a predictive map of golden eagle distribution in Chihuahua, Mexico. I found that at a home range scale, golden eagles' occurrence was positively related to open areas and terrain ruggedness and negatively to human settlements, while at a larger scale it was positively related to open areas and negatively related to forested areas. The results confirm that golden eagles are dependent on grasslands and rugged terrain. I developed predictive maps of golden eagle occurrence using a logistic regression and a Mahalanobis distance approach using the variables from the model chosen to compare the performance and output with logistic regression modeling. I analyzed the Mexican National Plan for Golden Eagle Recovery (PACE - Ã guila Real) and proposed a conservation strategy oriented to protect golden eagle populations and their habitat in Chihuahua, Mexico. This strategy integrates ecologic knowledge developed in the first two chapters and incorporates social participation of all stakeholders. The strategy recognizes the potential limitations of conservation implementation programs in Mexico and explores the potential opportunities to protect golden eagles populations and their habitat. / Ph. D.

I studied bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) distribution, abundance, roost use and response to human activity on the northern Chesapeake Bay from 1984-89. The eagle population consisted of Chesapeake breeding eagles, Chesapeake nonbreeding eagles, northern-origin eagles and southern-origin eagles; changes in overall eagle distribution and abundance reflected the net changes in these 4 groups. Breeding territories on the northern Chesapeake increased from 12 to 28 from 1984 to 1988. Breeding eagles were resident all year, always ~7 km from the nest. Chesapeake nonbreeding eagles moved throughout most of the bay, but rarely left it (~5% of the radio-tagged eagles were off the bay during any month). Northern eagles migrated into the bay in late fall (x = 21 December! n = 7! range = 61 days) and departed in early spring (x = 27 March, n = 14, range = 43 days). Southern eagles arrived on the northern bay throughout April-August (x = 6 June, n = 11, range = 94 days) and departed from June - October (x = 3 September, n = 22, range = 119 days). Northern Chesapeake eagle abundance peaked twice annually; in winter (261 eagles, December 1987), driven by the presence of northern eagles, and in summer (604 eagles, August 1988), driven by the presence of southern birds. Of 1,117 radio-tagged eagle locations, only 55 (4.90/0) occurred in human-developed habitat, which composed 27.7% of 1,442 km2 of potential eagle habitat on the northern Chesapeake Bay (P < 0.001). During 36 aerial shoreline surveys, eagles were observed on only 111 of 700 (15.9%) 250-m shoreline segments that had development within 100 m, whereas eagles were observed on 312 of 859 (36.30/0) segments when development was absent (P < 0.001). On average, eagles were observed on 1.0 segment/survey that had coincident pedestrian use within 500 m, compared to 3.6 segments/survey expected if eagles and pedestrians were distributed along the shoreline independently (n = 34 surveys, P < 0.001). / Ph. D.

I examined the roosting and perching habitat preferences of a nonbreeding population of bald eagles in North Carolina during 1986 and 1987. I characterized roosting habitat at 2 scales; those of forest stands and individual roost trees. Eagles chose roost areas that were less dense, had less canopy cover, were closer to forest edges, and had larger trees than random forest areas (P < 0.05). Within roost areas eagles choose trees that were larger (height and dbh) than random trees. Additionally. eagles roosting at the Morgan Creek roost preferred dead hardwoods close to the forest edge and eagles at the Mason Point roost preferred trees farther from a frequently used dirt road within the roost. Suitable perch trees were the most important attribute of perching habitat. Eagles preferred loblolly pines and trees with leafless crowns (P < 0.05), which relates to their accessible crown structures. Perch trees were larger (height and dbh, P < 0.05) than adjacent trees along the shore. Eagles utilized the bottom of tree crowns during summer but used treetops during fall and winter. I found no evidence that eagles selected perches in relation to forest stand characteristics within 20 m of perch trees, forest cover types in 1 ha blocks surrounding perches, or habitat disturbances. Management recommendations include techniques to enhance bald eagle habitat on the study area. Primary emphasis should be toward managing for roosting habitat because of its apparent scarcity. Perch trees are plentiful but long-term management is desirable. Future nesting seems likely and management techniques for potential nesting habitat are suggested. / Master of Science

I studied the effect of human activities on bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephahus) distribution and abundance at Jordan Lake and Falls Lake, North Carolina in 1986 and 1981. Eagles used most of the area available on Jordan Lake, but 63% of the use occurred in the northern 25% of the lake. Eagle use at Falls Lake was restricted to a few areas in the northern section of the lake. Jordan Lake had 1.2 times as many eagle observations as did Falls Lake. Data from radio-tagged eagles and timing of population fluctuations suggest that eagle populations at Jordan and Falls Lakes were principally migrating eagles from southern states. The peak in eagle numbers in May 1981 may have represented a migratory wave, whereas the decrease in June and July may have been the result of some eagles continuing northward. Eagles returning south from the Chesapeake Bay and other northern areas may account for the slight increase observed in August. Two eagle roosts were located and monitored throughout the study at Jordan Lake. Human activities at both lakes peaked during summer months. Boating was the predominant activity during summer. Sixty-three intentional disturbances by motor boats produced a mean eagle flush distance of 131.2 m. Only 8% of the eagles flushed when the approaching boat was > 250 m from shore. Loglinear analysis revealed that human use of the shoreline and eagle use of the shoreline were related. Shoreline segments (250 m) used by humans were used less frequently by eagles than would be expected under a model of complete independence. I saw more eagles and fewer humans on weekdays than on weekends during boat surveys of selected Jordan Lake sections, suggesting that human use in certain sections on weekends displaced eagles. The lake section north of the Farrington Bridge showed the largest difference between eagle numbers on weekdays versus weekends. I developed a regression model that predicted the threshold density of disturbance Within this section to be 0.5 boats/km². On most days during the summer, this threshold level of boating traffic is surpassed in lake sections south of the Farrington Bridge. Primary management objectives should be to reduce human activities within high-eagle use areas, specifically the northern end of Jordan Lake, and to promote the bald eagle as a recreational benefit rather than a management problem. / Master of Science

Availability of dead fish to bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), prey preferences of bald eagles, and the effects of food on their distribution and movements on the northern Chesapeake Bay were examined from April 1988-July 1989. Dead fish surveys were conducted, by boat, to monitor dead fish availability in several eagle-use areas of the northern Bay, and 3 methods were used to describe disappearance rates of dead fish: dead fish cages, anchored dead fish and floating dead fish. Live fish availability was monitored using gillnets. Dead fish were most available to eagles from May through September, with a peak in availability in June (0.75 dead fish/km with fish die-offs not included, and 3.5 dead fish/km with fish die-offs included). Channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) comprised the largest portion of dead fish in early summer months (30% and 28% of total seen, excluding fish die-offs). In contrast, live catfish comprised only 0.4% and 2.1% of the fish caught near the surface in gillnets during spring and summer indicating that dead catfish may be more available, relative to other species, than live catfish. Atlantic menhaden (Brevoortia tyranus) comprised 83-98% of the fish seen in 2 fish die-offs (175 total fish). Only 2 dead fish were seen along 147.7 km of dead fish surveys in winter (0.014 dead fish/km). Most (95%) dead menhaden that we anchored near the bottom off Aberdeen Proving Ground (APG) in summer were scavenged before becoming rancid (X̅= 0.4 days). In contrast, 70% of dead menhaden that we put out in winter became rancid before being scavenged (X̅= 9 days). Pairs of prey items were offered on shoreline areas to wild bald eagles and on platforms to 2 captive bald eagles. All pair-wise combinations of channel catfish, gizzard shad (Dorosoma cepedianum), menhaden and white perch (Morone americana) were offered. We also paired gizzard shad with mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) and rabbits (eastern cottontails, Sylvilagus floridanus, or domestic rabbits, Oryctolagus cuniculus) in shoreline trials, and gizzard shad with mallards and eastern gray squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis) in captive eagle trials. Wild and captive eagles preferred catfish (P=0.0072 and P<0.0002, respectively), and showed no preference for gizzard shad, menhaden nor white perch. Wild eagles preferred gizzard shad over mallards in summer and in winter (P= 0.062 and P=0.002, respectively), while captive eagles preferred mallards over gizzard shad (P= 0.039). Wild eagles selected gizzard shad 4 of 4 times over rabbits (P= 0.125), while captive eagles selected squirrels 5 of 5 times over gizzard shad (P=0.062, both eagles combined). Handling time and familiarity with prey seem to be major factors influencing prey preference, though prey availability seems to determine the actual diet of eagles on the northern Bay. The prediction that the autumn decline in fish abundance on the northern Chesapeake Bay causes eagle distribution to shift from APG to 2 autumn/early winter concentration areas on the northern Bay (Susquehanna River and the Eastern Shore) and then to Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge (BWNWR) and vicinity (winter concentration area on the lower Bay) was tested. By supplying fish (mostly gizzard shad) ad libidum each morning at 2 sites from 28 September through 11 December 1988 a situation in which fish availability did not decline on APG was simulated. Eagle use of the sites increased from 4 eagles seen on first morning that we supplied fish to a peak of 63 eagles seen on the morning of 8 December. Based on shoreline surveys and relocations of 39 radio-tagged nonbreeding Chesapeake hatched eagles, eagle distribution shifted to the Susquehanna River, where eagles feed on gizzard shad, as in 1986 and 1987. However, they did not shift to the Eastern Shore to feed on waterfowl as they had done in 1986 and 1987. Supplemental feeding on APG failed to keep eagles from moving to the lower Bay. Although local eagle distribution on the northern Bay in autumn seems to be dependent on food availability, the autumn decline in fish abundance may not be the proximate factor causing movement to BWNWR and vicinity. / Master of Science

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Land use alterations have been major drivers for modifying hydrologic cycles in many watersheds nationwide. Imbalances in this cycle have led to unexpected or extreme changes in flood and drought patterns and intensities, severe impairment of rivers and streams due to pollutants, and extensive economic losses to affected communities. Eagle Creek Watershed (ECW) is a typical Midwestern agricultural watershed with a growing urban land-use that has been affected by these problems. Structural solutions, such as ditches and tiles, have helped in the past to reduce the flooding problem in the upland agricultural area. But these structures have led to extensive flooding and water quality problems downstream and loss of moisture storage in the soil upstream. It has been suggested that re-naturalization of watershed hydrology via a spatially-distributed implementation of non-structural and structural conservation practices, such as cover crops, wetlands, riparian buffers, grassed waterways, etc. will help to reduce these problems by improving the upland runoff (storing water temporally as moisture in the soil or in depression storages). However, spatial implementation of these upland storage practices poses hurdles not only due to the large number of possible alternatives offered by physical models, but also by the effect of tenure, social attitudes, and behaviors of landowners that could further add complexities on whether and how these practices are adopted and effectively implemented for benefits. This study investigates (a) how landowner tenure and attitudes can be used to identify promising conservation practices in an agricultural watershed, (b) how the different attitudes and preferences of stakeholders can modify the effectiveness of solutions obtained via classic optimization approaches that do not include the influence of social attitudes in a watershed, and (c) how spatial distribution of landowner tenure affects the spatial optimization of conservation practices on a watershed scale. Results showed two main preferred practices, one for an economic evaluation (filter strips) and one for an environmental perspective (wetlands). A land tenure comparison showed differences in spatial distribution of systems considering all the conservation practices. It also was observed that cash renters selected practices will provide a better cost-revenue relation than the selected optimal solution.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / The characterization of the nutrients nitrogen, phosphorus and carbon (NPC) export to streams during storms is an integral part of understanding processes affecting water quality. Despite the fact that excessive levels of these nutrients in the Mississippi River basin adversely affects water quality in the Gulf of Mexico, little research has been conducted on NPC dynamics during storms on larger (>20 km2) agriculturally dominated Midwestern watersheds. This project examined the storm export of nitrate, ammonium, total phosphorus, and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in the upper Eagle Creek Watershed (UECW) (274 km2) in Central Indiana, USA. Water samples were collected during five winter and spring storms in 2007 and 2008 on the rising and falling limb of the hydrograph, in order to characterize NPC dynamics during storm events. Stream discharge and precipitation was monitored continuously, and major cations were used to examine changes in source water over the duration of the storm and assist in the determination of potential flowpaths. DOC, total P, and TKN (Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen) tended to peak with discharge, while nitrate usually exhibited a slight lag and peaked on the receding limb. Total phosphorus, NH3-, TKN, and DOC appear to be delivered to the stream primarily by overland flow. NO3--N appear to be delivered by a combination of tile drain and macropore flow. Overall UECW displayed smoother nutrient export patterns than smaller previously studied watersheds in the area suggesting that scale may influence nutrient export dynamics. Further research is underway on a 3000 km2 watershed in the area to further examine the role scale may play in nutrient export patterns.

新疆塔吉克族的婚禮，目前已是聯合國非物質文化遺產之一。塔吉克族的婚禮方式傳統特殊，有其特定的結婚季節，是塔吉克人引以為傲的慶典。隨著中國大陸「一帶一路」的全球經濟發展策略，塔吉克族的故鄉塔什庫爾干，因為位於一帶一路通往中亞與南亞的重要樞紐上，成為了經濟特區，帶動經濟飛快地發展，卻也造成維護傳統文化上的巨大衝擊。許多塔吉克族的傳統房屋被迫拆除，新建地現代樓房因為室內空間改變，而影響了塔吉克族的婚禮儀式。此外，隨著現代化的影響，許多傳統的禮俗慢慢地流失，塔吉克族特有的樂器鷹笛和羊皮鼓，已漸漸地被電子琴所取代。而騎馬迎娶新娘的儀式，也大多被汽車所取代。因此，此創作計畫透過三個多月的紀錄，將塔吉克婚禮的過程紀實攝影，最終展覽以攝影敘事的方式，結合動態影像與塔吉克鷹舞的互動體驗，以及問卷回饋的形式，反映社會大眾對於不同文化變遷的意見，也希望能特過此創作，對於塔吉克族文化的變遷與流失，做最後的紀錄與保存。 / The Xinjiang Tajik wedding is one of the United Nations Intangible Cultural Heritage. The Tajik wedding is particular, traditional which is only hold in wedding season. The Tajik is proud of their wedding ceremony. Via the One Belt One Road global economic strategy in mainland China, which leads to the dramatically change in Tashkurgan, the hometown of the Tajik. The location of Tashkurgan is in the hub of Central Asia and South Asia. The perfect location make Tashkurgan become the Fourth Special Economic Zone in China. Being the Special Economic Zone brought to the increasing developing, on the other hand, which harmed to the cultural maintenance as well. Most of the traditional Tajik houses were demolished. The China government built the modern house to replace the original tradition one. The change of the house which also changed the indoor space leading to the change to the Tajik wedding ceremony. Otherwise, the modern life also make many customs vanished. Instead of playing the Eagle-flute and Lamb-drum, some wedding were playing the keyboard . The custom about horse-riding to escort the bride was substituted by the car. Thus, this project has recorded the Tajik for three months. The process of the Tajik wedding was recorded with photography documentary. The exhibition that integrated Photography Narrative and dynamic phantom. In the exhibition, with the questionnaire and interaction in Eagle dance, which reflected the audience feedback to the other culture change. Furthermore, I hope that I could make a contribution to preserve images about the culture change for Tajik via this project.

Please read the abstract in the section 00front of this document. Please note that pages 9 and 10 are missing from the available paper, as well as the microfiche copy. / Thesis (PhD (Zoology))--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Zoology and Entomology / unrestricted