M.A. / The aim of this study was to investigate possible differences in the six facets of the Neuroticism subscale of the NEO Personality Inventory Revised (measuring Emotional Stability / Instability) in relation to two eating disorder inventories, namely the EDI (Eating Disorder Inventory) and the EI (Eating Inventory) in males. The six facets of the Neuroticism scale are Anxiety, Angry Hostility, Depression, Impulsiveness, Self-Consciousness and Vulnerability. Based on the literature review, it was hypothesised that males with differential Neuroticism scores would show different scores on the eating disorder inventories. The sample consisted of 98 white, male, English speaking university students between the ages of 18 and 28, drawn from two tertiary education institutes in South Africa. The males were divided into high, medium and low groups for each facet of the Neuroticism scale according to the norm tables provided in the NEO PI-R manual. The NEO PI-R, the EDI and the EI were administered to all subjects. The results indicated that there are statistically significant differences between males with high, medium and low scores on the Anxiety, Depression, Self-Consciousness and Vulnerability facets of the Neuroticism subscales of the NEO PI-R in terms of the 11 subscales of the EDI taken together. There were also statistically significant differences between the males with high, medium and low scores on the Depression and Impulsiveness facets of the Neuroticism subscale of the NEO PI-R in terms of the 3 subscales of the EI taken together. It can be deduced that certain temperament traits may be related to eating disordered symptomatology and cognition. The above hypothesis was thus supported. These findings are also supported by findings from previous research which has found that emotional instability is evident in eating disordered individuals, even from childhood, and studies that have found that eating disordered individuals have tendencies towards neurotic personalities.

Eating disorders were predominantly perceived to be a white, Western higher socioeconomic phenomenon. However, as Western cultural values have been embraced, eating disorders appear to have become prevalent across racial, ethnic and socio-economic groups. In the last decade there has been an increased interest in assessing eating disorders from a cross-cultural perspective. Many studies have been conducted in the United Kingdom and the United States of America. Relatively few empirical studies have been conducted in South Africa. The Eating Disorders Inventory (EDI) is an instrument that has been used in eating disorder research and is known to be reliable and valid. Although the EDI has been used in South Africa, its cross-cultural validity has not yet been determined. The purpose of this research is a pilot cross-cultural validation of the EDI to determine if this design would be appropriate for a large-scale validation project. / Thesis (M.Soc.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg,2004.

The compilation of information on the incidence of eating disorders in South African university residence women has been identified as an urgent matter by the National Eating Disorders Coordinating Committee (NEDCC). This study was undertaken to determine the degree of eating disordered behaviour across cultures in female university residence students from the University of Natal, Durban and Pietermaritzburg campuses, and the University of Durban Westville. The Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI) was completed by 39 black, 41 white, 6 Indian and 4 Coloured students. It was hypothesised that white women would show higher rates of disordered eating; that black women in more advanced years of study ie. those who are more acculturated, would show more disordered eating behaviour than first year black students; that black females would demonstrate higher Body Mass Index (BMI) scores than white students; and that a positive relationship would be found between Socio-economic status (SES) and disordered eating. The results of this study indicated that there was no significant difference in disordered eating among black and white female students. Degree of disordered eating did not increase with year of study. Although black students demonstrated significantly higher BMI scores than white students, there was no difference in body dissatisfaction scores. Furthermore there was no relationship found between SES and degree of disordered eating behaviour. An attempt is made to explain these results by exploring the role of acculturation to Western appearance standards.

Thesis (M. Tech. (Biomedical Technology)) -- Central University of technology, Free State, [2013] / Introduction: Geophagia, a subcategory of pica, is the practice of persistently and deliberately eating earthy or soil like substances. A definite cause for the practice of geophagia is yet to be established, but some theories claim that the soil holds nutritional value to the geophagist. Method: Geophagic woman in the QwaQwa area between the ages of 18 and 45 years were identified by means of a questionnaire. A test group, consisting of 48 women in the habit of consuming soil, and a control group, consisting of 35 non geophagous women, were identified. Subjects in the control group were chosen from the same household or in the same area as the test subjects. On each subject, of both the test group and the control group, the following tests were done: total serum iron, transferrin, ferritin, calcium, magnesium, phosphate and albumin. The results obtained were statistically analysed and compared. Biochemical results were compared with haematology results obtained by another researcher, using the same test group and control group subjects. Results: In the test group, 75% of the individuals had results indicative of iron deficiency, compared to only 26% in the control group. The haematology results also indicate anaemia in the test group, most probably brought on by iron deficiency. There was no significant difference in mineral results between the test- and control group. Thus no association could be established between soil consumption and mineral status. Conclusion: In relation to non-geophagous women, people who consume soil have a tendency toward iron deficiency. It is impossible to ascertain whether the iron deficiency caused the craving for soil, or whether the consumption of soil caused the iron deficiency. No definite association could be made between soil consumption and mineral status.

A total sample of 1,105 students from the universities of Natal, Witwatersrand and the North participated in this study. The Eating Attitude Test (EAT) and the Bulimic Investigatory Test, Edinburgh (BITE) were administered to three female and three male student samples. Subjects also provided biographic, demographic and weight-related information. The majority of subjects fell within the average weight range of the Body Mass Index (BMI), with the percentage of underweight Indian subjects being higher than the corresponding percentages of the black and white student groups. The majority of males in each race group have accurate weight perceptions. In contrast, the minority of females (fewer than a third) of Indian and white females and under half of black females have accurate weight perceptions. However, all overweight white females assessed themselves as such and 89% of overweight black women assessed themselves as overweight. In terms of exaggerated weight perceptions, more white and Indian females (72% and 70% respectively) consider themselves as overweight or very overweight when they were actually of average weight, than black females (47%). Females in each race group scored consistently higher on all scales assessed than their male counterparts. White females exhibited the most disturbed eating behaviours and attitudes in terms of the categorised percentage scores obtained on all scales of the BITE and EAT. No Indian males obtained scores in the pathological range. On the EAT scale, 19% of white females, 17% of black females and 9% of Indian females, 7% of black males and 1% of white males obtained scores which were categorised as pathological. The more stringent criteria of the BITE showed a lower percentage of all subjects in the pathological range, albeit still retaining the gender discrepancy. Thirteen percent of white female students, 8% of black females, 3% of Indian females, 2% of white males and 1% of black males obtained a pathological score on the BITE scale. The Indian female and male sample exhibited the healthiest eating behaviours and attitudes relative to the other two racial groups examined. In terms of mean scores a general trend emerged in which black males obtained higher mean scores than white and Indian males, and black females obtained mean scores (which were overall) similar in magnitude to those of white females. The majority of black females who obtained pathological scores were urban raised and were from the upper socio-economic stratum. The majority of white females who obtained pathological scores were from urban backgrounds, had exaggerated weight perceptions and expressed a desire to lose at least 10 kilograms of weight. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1996.

A growing body of research has explored the prevalence of eating disorder pathology within the ethnically and culturally diverse South African context. The purpose of this study was to examine the presence and severity of eating disorder symptoms within a multi-racial, female student sample. In addition to this, the pathogenic role of the family was considered and framed in terms of attachment theory. Thus, a secondary aim was to explore the relationship between disordered eating and participants' membership to an attachment style and /or dimension. A questionnaire survey was administered to a convenience sample of 127 first year, female, university students. The sample included 39 (30.71%) Black, 5 (3.94%) Coloured, 29 (22.83%) Indian and 54 (42.52%) White women. Levels of disordered eating were measured by the Eating Disorder Inventory 1 (EDI 1). Attachment styles were determined by means of the Close Relationship Questionnaire (CRQ) and attachment dimensions were calculated by means of the Adult Attachment Scale (AAS). It was found that Black students had higher mean scores on seven of the eight EDI 1 subscales than their Indian and White peers. There were significant differences noted on the EDI 1 sub-scales of Bulimia (p < .01), Perfectionism (p < .05), and Interpersonal Distrust (p < .05). White participants scored highest on the Body Dissatisfaction sub-scale. A negative relationship was indicated between the eight EDI 1 sub-scales and the secure attachment dimension (Close). A positive relationship was found between the eight EDI sub-scales and the two insecure attachment dimensions (Depend and Anxiety). Significant differences were found between the race groups in terms of the classification of participants into three attachment styles /dimensions. This research supports previous findings with regard to high levels of eating disordered pathology among Black women. Furthermore, support of a relationship between disordered eating and participants' attachment in close relationships was indicated. In particular, the psychological struggles implicated in disordered eating such as feelings of inadequacy and worthlessness, mistrust of others, and difficulty with emotions, were found to be significantly associated with unhealthy or insecure attachment patterns that reflected difficulty with trust and dependency in close relationships. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2004.

MENVSC / Department of Ecology and Resource Management / Certain communities in Sekhukhune area are known to be practicing geophagia. Existing standard questionnaires as adopted to generate data on human geophagia included aspects on demography, socio-economics, cultural, ecological, physico-chemical aspects, indigenous knowledge and health effects of geophagic consumers. These data were gathered through distribution of questionnaires to 200 geophagic participants, of which 135 were from Ga-Nchabeleng Village and 65 from Mphanama Village. Both the Villages were based in the rural settlements in Sekhukhune area. In this study the behaviour of geophagic individuals was investigated and cytotoxicity of plant remains consumed in geophagic soils was evaluated for any toxicity. A total of 17 different geophagic sites were identified. Six geophagic sites each were from Ga-Nchabeleng Village and six from Mphanama Village. Five other sites were selected from sites where geophagia was not practiced and were recorded as the control sites. All the 17 soil samples were analysed using Munsell Soil Color charts for soil colour classification. Samples of plant remains were collected from the same geophagic sites where soil samples were collected. Due to similar plants and vegetation type from 17 different geophagic sites, a composite study was adopted. Geophagic consumers in Ga-Nchabeleng Village identified four plant species of plant remains consumed in the soil in the area and Mphanama village identified five species different from Ga-Nchabeleng plants. Samples of plant remains were grouped according to comparable features or characteristics. Sample 1 of plant remains was composed mainly of grasses; Cynodon dactylon, Aristida congesta and Eragrostis rigidior whereas sample 2 of plant remains was composed of Acacia plant; Vachellia tortilis. The two samples of plant remains were collected from Ga-Nchabeleng Village. Sample 3 of plant remains was composed of creeping, perennial weed herbs; Alternanthera pungens Kunth and Alternanthera lorentzii. Sample 4 of plant remains was composed of prominent woody plants; Combretum apiculutum, Kirkia wilmsii and Boscia albitrunca. Samples of plant remains 3 and 4 were collected from Mphanama Village study sites. Sample 5 of plant remains was the control site and composed mainly of Acacia plants; Vachellia nilotica, Acacia vii mearnsii and Vachellia tortilis and were collected from sites not used for geophagic practices. The plant remains parts mostly consumed were roots (50%) in Ga-Nchabeleng, whereas in Mphanama Village they were stems (54.5%) and the control site had leaves at 62.5%. The five samples of plant remains were recovered using physical separation method. The plant remains were washed and dried. Retch Muhle grinding machine was used to ground the samples. Methanol was used in the extraction of all the samples of plant remains. The result from the administration of the questionnaire revealed that geophagia in this area was practiced by both male and female Sepedi-speaking individuals. Ga-Nchabeleng Village had more female geophagic participants, whereas Mphanama Village had more males who have almost undergone secondary school. However, in general for the study there were more female geophagic consumers. Geophagic consumers ingest soil known locally as Mobu, Letsopa or Leraga collected mostly from the riverbanks, mountains/hills and valleys with only a few that indicated termite mounds. Geophagic consumers in the study used colour, among other things, to describe their soil of preference. The study consisted of 200 participants of whom 172 represented the geophagic group and 28 were the control group, aged between 18-65 years analysed using chi-square crosstabulation. There was no significant difference in human health effects associated with geophagia between the geophagic group and the control group. There was also no association established between soil consumption and other non-food substances between geophagic group and control group. Chi-square (χ2) analyses revealed a significant association of gender with geophagic habits (p<0.05), while there was no association of age, educational level, income source and marital status (p>0.05) with geophagic habits. Findings of the survey when two villages are combined revealed that more females (75.60%) practice geophagia compared to males (24.40%). The respondents from both study sites preferred digging technique when collecting the soil. It was established that craving was mainly the reason behind the practice in the study area. Hygiene and environmental conditions were not considered when mining viii geophagic soil as the majority of them used dirty utensils, hands for collection and non-sterile bags and tins for packaging. Some of the soils were collected close to waste dumping sites as seen whilst visiting geophagic mining sites. Majority of the consumers had little or no knowledge that the soil could be harmful or if it contained any contaminants. This sample of interviewees provided valuable information on human geophagic practices in Sekhukhune area. It became clear that this practice was entrenched in the cultural behaviour of people in the area and a need for educating them on health related aspects. The cytotoxicity of methanolic extracts of plant remains on HEK-293T cell line was evaluated using MTT (3-[4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay for cell viability. The 50% cytotoxic concentration (CC50) was defined as the compound’s concentration (500, 250, 125, 62.5, 31.25, 15.625 and 7.8125 μg/ml) required for the reduction of cell viability by 50%. Evaluation of cell viability showed the methanolic extracts of plant remains on HEK-293T cell line ranged in the order of plant remains extract=3>1>4>2>5 according to their cytotoxicity activities. Plant remains extract 3 from Mphanama Village showed high cytotoxicity with a CC50 of 13.75 μg/ml, followed by plant remains extract 1 at 16.68 μg/ml, plant remains extract 4 at 58.95 μg/ml, plant remains extract 2 at 92.75 μg/ml and the control at 251.4 μg/ml, respectively. In the study only the methanolic extract was investigated for cytotoxicity using HEK-293T cell line. Further research need to be conducted on the individual plants of each plant remains to be able to have conclusive results on the cytotoxicity profile. This will indicate which specific plant part is toxic or whether they exhibit a higher CC50 only when in combination.

MESHWR / Department of Hydrology and Water Resources / Communities in South Africa have been noted to consume earthy materials such a soil among others. Geophagy is largely practised in the rural areas as opposed to urban places, and in these places the level of sanitation is low and people usual practice open defecation. The practice of Geophagia has been associated with cultural, medicinal, psychological, religious and nutritional deficiency among others. The aim of the study was to investigate the effects of open defecation on geophagic soils and water resources in Siloam village. The study also aimed to understand the reasons why people practice geophagia in Siloam village and the health effect associated with consumption of geophagic soils. To carry out the aim of the study, a questionnaire survey was conducted among women who practice geophagia between the ages of 18 and above in Siloam village. Two hundred and eighty-three (283) women were selected using snowball sampling method to take part in the study. From the (283) women, (200) women represent the geophagic group and (83) women represent the control group. The existing standard questionnaire adopted to generate data on human geophagia included aspects on demography, socio-economic, cultural, ecological, physicochemical aspects, indigenous knowledge and health effects of geophagic consumers. Participants were asked basic questions on why they practice geophagy, their geophagic material preferences, where they collect the geophagic material and other related questions. A total of twelve soil samples were collected from Siloam village, from the twelve soil samples collected eight were collected from sites known for geophagic practice and another four soil samples were collected from sites where geophagia is not practiced and the samples were used as control soil samples. All the twelve soil samples were analysed for the presence of geohelminths ova using Ammonium Bicarbonate Protocol (AMBIC protocol). The AMBIC protocol consists of four analytical procedures, namely, sample preparation, sample washing with AMBIC solution, geohelminths ova recovery through a modified zinc flotation method and microscopic analysis. vi Furthermore, a total of twelve water samples were collected from Nzhelele River and ponds water in Siloam village. From the twelve water samples, eight samples were collected close to where geophagic materials were collected and where open defecation is reported to be taking place and the remaining four water samples were collected randomly from Nzhelele river and water ponds in Siloam village and was recorded as a control group. A total of 12 water samples were analysed for total coliform and faecal coliform Escherichia Coli (E.coli) indicator using the membrane filter technique. The results from the administration of the questionnaire revealed there was prevalence in the practice of geophagia in the area. The study found that most of the villagers in Siloam consumed soil nearly on daily basis. According to the results, only women were involved in the geophagic practices in the area. Additionally, the study revealed that geophagic consumers were mainly in the age of child bearing age group and reddish and yellowish soils were the most preferred. Furthermore, the results showed that geophagic consumers in the area generally consumed soil commonly because of cravings and pregnancy, however, those who were not pregnant also consumed soil. The respondents reported that they mostly consumed clay and this material was consumed in its dry state and mostly unprocessed, if processed, it would be baked. This geophagic material was mainly found in the wild (riverbed, valley etc.); it was also found that most of the soil consumers did not know that the substances they consumed could be harmful to them. Among those who knew the consequences of consuming the material stated that soil consumption causes constipation, tooth decay, body poisoning, and abdominal pains. The results from the control group, 83 women who do not practice geophagia, aged between 18 and above, analysed using chi-square revealed a significant association of age with consuming soils (p<0.05), while there was no association of income source (p>0.05) and educational level (p>0.05) with consuming soils. Chi-square (χ2) analyses further revealed that there was no association of knowledge on the harmful nature of the substance (p>0.05), frequency of getting infections (p>0.05) and experiencing chronic illnesses (p>0.05) with frequency of consuming soils. vii The results of geophagic soils revealed the absence of geohelminths ova in the entire geophagic sample. Meaning geophagic consumers in Siloam village are not at risk of acquiring geohelminths infection which may be of potential risk to human health. However, geophagic consumers may be exposed to various other potentially hazardous biological and non-biological soil contents. The results of the water samples revealed that most of the water samples in the areas where open defection is reported to be practised had higher composition of faecal and total coliform bacteria. The composition was above the South African recommended standard for negligible risk of microbial infection. This has caused a great threat to those who consume soil collected near water resources, especially from riverbed and those who also use these water sources on their daily basis. The study recommends that geophagic consumers should continue to bake their materials before consumption as it might reduce the bacteria and toxic substances found in soils. The study also recommends that the residents of Siloam be made aware of the potential health hazards that might be posed to soil consumers and the effects of practicing open defecation near community water resources as high level of faecal coliform (E. coli) were found in the water. / NRF

MRDV / Instutute for Rural Development / Health and wellbeing of humans is affected by their eating habits, patterns and choice of meals. This research discusses food consumption patterns of selected households of Mbilwi and Matavhela villages in Thulamela Municipality, Limpopo Province of South Africa. The study identified types of food consumed and the nutritional knowledge of households living in the study area. In addition, the study assessed the knowledge of households on how food choices affect their health. Lastly an analysis of socio-economic factors that influence food consumption patterns in households living in Mbilwi and Matavhela villages was investigated. Using purposive sampling, qualitative and quantitative inquiry were used to explore the research objectives. A sample size of 50 and 47 households from each village were selected respectively and the heads of each household were interviewed. Thematic content analysis was used to categorise data into themes, to address and interpret qualitative data. Themes were generated as the units for analysis based on the objectives of the study to enable interpretation of qualitative information. The quantitative data was analysed using Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 23.0. The findings indicated that there was no variety in foods consumed by households in both the weekly food consumption pattern and 24-hour food recall. There was also limited nutrition knowledge of the foods consumed in households of both villages. Households usually consumed energy giving foods such as carbohydrates and body building foods such as proteins. There was low consumption of milk and milk products, fruit and vegetable food groups. Various socio-economic factors such as income, living conditions, health, nutrition knowledge, culture, religion and lack of time to prepare food, affected eating habits. Some foods were recommended or condoned based on religious and cultural factors. Most households were unemployed and relied on government grants and remittances from family members working in the metropolitan centres. The findings in this study provide a better understanding of food access, availability and consumption in rural areas which can also assist in the formulation of policies that would improve quality of food consumption in rural areas. This study presented an opportunity that can be filled by institutions working in rural areas to support and strengthen their activities. Information sharing with households on the benefits of balanced diets can contribute to the health and the well-being of the society. The emphasis must be on strengthening backyard vegetable/fruit gardens and community food gardening programmes for household consumption v and sale, to generate income. These programmes can also offer fruit/vegetable preservation skills to households in order to help improve the shelf life of the produce. Policy makers must encourage provision of nutritional knowledge to households through different media and channels such as television, clinics, hospitals, schools, and newspapers.