This thesis explores the utility of Attachment Theory (Bowlby, 1969; 1973; 1980) as a framework for understanding both the personality and cognitive processing styles associated with depression and vulnerability to depression. In two separate but related studies, the present investigation identified depressive personality characteristics and depressive cognitive processing styles associated with each of the styles of adult attachment defined by Bartholomew and Horowitz's (1991) four-category attachment model. Using self-report data from a sample of 305 respondents (225 female; 80 male), Study 1 explored associations among each of the adult attachment styles and sociotropic and autonomous personality-based vulnerabilities to depression (Beck, 1983). Extending the work of Zuroff and Fitzpatrick (1995; Study 2), associations among the attachment styles and the specific components of the two depressive personality styles, as defined by Robins et al. (1994), were examined. Using cued recall of autobiographical memories for a subsample of 44 of the same respondents (35 female; 9 male), Study 2 explored attachment style group differences in autobiographical memory retrieval, thereby identifying specific depressive cognitive processing biases associated with each adult attachment style. Past research has focused on the assessment of memory accessibility, using either recall latency (Mikulincer & Orbach, 1995; Mikulincer, 1998a) or memory generality (Tasker, MacLeod & Maynard, 1996) to indicate accessibility. In the present study, both latency and generality were used as indicators of memory accessibility, and the content of memories was also examined. In addition, use of a four-category rather than a three-category measure of attachment style permitted distinction of cognitive biases for the fearful-avoidant and dismissive-avoidant styles. The present findings support a notion that the two adult attachment styles understood to be characterised by a negative self-view, namely fearful and preoccupied attachment, are associated with depressive vulnerability. Replicating previous findings (Carnelley, Pietromonaco & Jaffe, 1994), both the fearful and preoccupied styles were associated with state depression and with perceptions of negative parental bonding. The fearful style in particular was associated with perceptions of 'affectionless control' in childhood. As the major focus of this thesis, the fearful and preoccupied attachment styles were each associated with both personality styles and cognitive processing deficits which have previously been linked with depression and depressive vulnerability. In terms of personality styles (Study I), the fearful attachment style was broadly associated with the autonomous personality style, whereas the preoccupied attachment style was broadly associated with the sociotropic personality style, as previously demonstrated by Zuroff and Fitzpatrick (1995; Study 2). By focusing on associations with the individual components of the autonomous and sociotropic vulnerabilities, as defined by Robins et al. (1994), the more specific 'depressive' personality characteristics were identified for both these insecure attachment styles. In particular, the findings suggest that a fearful attachment style involves both avoidant and self-critical characteristics, whereas a preoccupied attachment style involves both dependent and self-critical characteristics. In terms of cognitive processing deficits (Study 2), fearful individuals had difficulty accessing autobiographical memories, indicated by delayed memory recall and reduced memory specificity across a range of memory cues. Indeed, these individuals demonstrated a globalised 'mnemonic interlock' typical of depressed individuals (Williams, 1996) and their memories were predominantly negative in content. In contrast, preoccupied individuals demonstrated a ruminative cognitive processing style, indicated by relatively fast recall of predominantly specific and negative memories across a range of memory cues. However, these individuals had difficulty accessing personally-relevant memories of abandonment, arguably due to both encoding and retrieval deficits emanating from their hypersensitivity to abandonment experiences. Dismissive attachment was associated with the avoidant but not the self-critical aspect of the autonomous personality style and involved a repressive cognitive processing style. This repressive style was indicated by delayed recall of specific negative memories. Nonetheless, unlike the fearful and preoccupied styles, dismissive attachment was not shown to be associated with state depression, suggesting that an avoidant attachment style does not necessarily contribute to depressive vulnerability. Instead, dismissive individuals' use of defensive repression of negative affects and memories appears to be an effective coping mechanism in the maintenance of a positive self-concept and a non-self-critical approach. Furthermore, in light of self-narrative models of personality (e.g., McAdams, 1993; Bruhn, 1990; 1992; 1995; Singer & Salovey, 1993), dismissive individuals' easy access to positive memories, particularly personally-relevant memories of independence, can be viewed as maintaining their positive self-concept. Overall, the findings of the present thesis support the proposition that Attachment Theory provides a framework for understanding both the personality and cognitive processing styles associated with depression. Indeed, the findings suggest that the fearful and preoccupied adult attachment styles can both be regarded as constituting vulnerability factors for depression. As expected, the fearful attachment style was highlighted as conferring greater depressive vulnerability. Thus, the findings provide further insight into the factors involved in the onset and maintenance of depression and highlight the importance of assessing adult attachment style during therapy for depression. Other clinical implications, as well as directions for future research, are outlined.

This thesis details the development and testing of a new scale for measuring human attachment to dogs which allows for the measurement of weaker attachment levels as well as stronger ones (the CDA scale). The correlation between dog-owner’s scores on the CDA scale and their dog’s actual attachment behaviour is assessed and discussed, as well as the dog-owners limited ability to predict the behaviour of their dog in a controlled situation (the Strange Situation Test (SST)) whereby the dogs meet a previously unknown person. The CDA scale was formed by utilising items from pre-existing scales (the Comfort from Companion Animals scale and the Lexington Attachment to Pets scale), trialed on the internet with a large self-selected sample of dog-owners and analysed and reduced using factor analysis. The CDA was completed with the addition of some negative items derived from a small sample of dog-owners who expressed drawbacks to keeping a dog. In addition 100 people living with dogs they did not consider themselves to be the primary carer of, and 100 people with dogs they considered to have behavioural problems also completed the CDA to allow for the assessment of reliability and validity, and for consideration of the possible links between human perceptions of attachment/dog behavioural problems and actual scores on the CDA. Dogs’ attachment behaviour was assessed by cluster analysis of behaviours observed in the SSD: 51 dog-owner pairs took part in the study which revealed a number of secure-base behavioural categories analogous to those typically observed in human mother-infant interactions in Ainsworth’s original (1969) SST. In addition five captive wolves were also observed in a modified version of the SST. Data from these observations is discussed in a case-wise manner and it is clear that captive wolves do not exhibit the suite of attachment behaviours (to their familiar handler) as previously observed in the dog study. However, the wolves’ familiar handler was very adept at predicting the behaviour of his wolves in this situation. These findings are important in furthering our understanding of human-canine attachments in general, but especially given the number of dog-owner pairings which appear to fail due to poor or misunderstood attachments. An effective attachment scale for people, and a valid measure and analysis of attachment behaviour in dogs is a further development in ensuring successful pairings of people with dogs in a variety of contexts such as pet dogs and service dogs.

Attachment research overlaps with many fields within psychology and is a highly under researched topic in South Africa. This study examined the relationship between the attachment style of Grade 1 learners and their socio-emotional behaviour. The following hypothesis was examined: Grade 1 learners who are securely attached display more age-appropriate socio-emotional behaviors than their counterparts who are not securely attached. The aims of the research were to: i.) describe mothers' perceptions of their children's attachment styles; ii.) investigate children's perceptions of their relationship with their primary caregiver and, iii.) describe the nature of the relationship between attachment style and certain aspects of socio-emotional behaviour in young children. In order to meet the above aims, the researcher constructed the Childhood Attachment Style Questionnaire (CASQ). In addition to the CASQ, the Preliminary Screening Checklist (PSCL), the Child Behaviour Scale (CBS) and the Kinetic Family Drawing test (KFD) were used to achieve the aims of the study. The sample consisted of 100 subjects who had met the criteria for participation in the study. Statistical and qualitative analyses of the data partially confirmed the hypothesis that secure Grade 1 learners were more likely to display age-appropriate socio-emotional behaviour as opposed to their insecure counterparts. Based on the findings of the study, various recommendations are made which have widespread relevance to the issues of behaviour problems, custody disputes and HIV/AIDS. / Thesis (M.Ed.)-University of Durban-Westville, 2001.

A thesis submitted to the faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Johannesburg, 2019 / Due to increasing urbanisation occasioned by population explosion and the attendant waste management challenges in most developing country-cities, scholars have theorised that residents who exhibit strong place attachment (PA) are likely to embark on pro-environmental behaviour (PEB). This school of thought maintain that their immediate environment is regularly maintained to retain and increase its aesthetic appeal. However, the environmental behavioural patterns of Urora residents – a settlement located on the outskirts of Benin City, Nigeria – contradict this theory. While Urora residents demonstrate strong PA with regular socio-cultural meaning making interactions between them and their habitat, indiscriminate disposal of solid waste both at household and community levels is the normal rather than the exception. In this light, the study applied a combination of direct ethnographic observation methods guided by the principles from (neuro)phenomenology, with focus group discussions among purposefully selected participants to explore the underlying drivers of the apparent coexistence of strong PA with weak PEB. The data were analysed using content analysis/thick description, and phenomenological analysis of the lived-experiences in relation to the indiscriminate solid waste disposal practices. The study finds that residents exhibit strong PA as mediated through rituals such as worship, marriage, burial and community forums, which address issues such as quarrels between neighbours, levies to offset burial expenses, and degraded surroundings. However, these practices do not translate into PEB. Instead, the study finds that, in the absence of municipal waste services such as communal waste collection bins, residents engaged in anti-environmental practices such as open-air burning, ad hoc landfills, and indiscriminate waste disposals in open fields, street corners, and secluded nooks and crannies. The study also finds that rituals could be used to bridge the disconnect between PA and PEB. This is because both religious and traditional worship leaders, as key stakeholders, have the unique leverage needed to drive the agenda of ensuring effective solid waste management in Urora. This assertion is premised on the fact that despite having a population of less than 50 000 residents, Urora is host to 36 public worship centres, apart from private and individual altars. / PH2020

Unwanted early sexual experiences (UESE) are traumatic experiences that many children worldwide are exposed to on a daily basis. Some of these victims struggle to adapt to life, whereas others become survivors, exhibiting post-traumatic growth after such an experience. South Africa has some of the highest UESE prevalence rates in the world, highlighting the importance of research conducted within this field in the country. With an overarching psychofortogenic framework, and through the implementation of a convergent parallel mixed methods research design, the study explored and described whether resilience and attachment act as mediators impacting upon the psychosocial sequelae which a UESE survivor might experience. The study was divided into three phases. Phase 1 consisted of a small-scale survey design which was conducted with 304 participants while Phase 2 consisted of nine semi-structure interviews with UESE survivors, who were volunteers from the original sample. Finally, Phase 3 provided an integrated summary of the findings from the first two phases. During Phase 1 significant findings relating to the survivors of UESE, their levels of resilience and attachment relationships were outlined. Of the total sample, 32.43% males and 30.5% females indicated that they had been exposed to a UESE. Most of the perpetrators were known to the survivors with friends being identified as the most common perpetrators. Parental relationships characterised by trust, open communication and less alienation were found to impact upon the degree to which participants reported being bothered by the UESE. Furthermore, parental alienation at the time of the UESE had a significantly negative impact on the survivors’ adult relationship styles. During Phase 2 a number of themes emerged including the manner of disclosure, reasons for delayed disclosure, relationship to the confidant, confidant’s response to disclosure, effects of the response to disclosure, the impact of the UESE upon the survivor, impact of the UESE on relationships, coping/resilience, advice to professionals, the confidant, and the survivor. The final phase confirmed the research hypothesis that resilience and attachment act as mediating factors impacting upon a variety of psychosocial sequelae which a UESE survivor might experience. Serendipitously, disclosure was found to be a mediating factor, securing a significant role within the study. In conclusion a future intervention titled ‘Post-Traumatic Growth: A UESE model of Disclosure, Resilience and Attachment’, was outlined, based on the study’s findings.

Abstract In this essay we investigate how attachment between the children and the educators is experienced in preschool. We look at attachment in as a phenomena and use a phenomenological theoretical perspective. Our own experience of many years of working in preschools in Sweden is that there seems to be an unequal perception on the importance of attachment. The purpose of our study is to investigate the picture of how the interviewed educators say that they experience attachment, as a phenomena, in preschool. 15 educators in preschool were interviewed with a qualitative method and analysed with a content analysis. The result shows that all the interviewed educators see attachment as something important. They seem to equate the phenomena with security. They experience attachment differently depending on their own earlier experiences, views on children and their understanding and knowledge. We can see that there is a gap of knowledge, among educators, when it comes to how to understand the children's attachment behaviour which can be a great loss for the children who don't have a safe attachment pattern.

The current research examined the proposition that individuals who were securely attached had a fundamentally different reaction and experience of chronic pain to the experience of individuals with an insecure attachment style. A biopsychosocial model of chronic pain was created that included the variables of attachment style, pain, depression, anxiety, somatisation, quality of life, function, disability, neuroticism, age and gender. Three cross-sectional quantitative studies and one qualitative study were conducted. Participants were (a) patients from a multidisciplinary pain centre in a major public hospital, and (b) members of the general population with chronic pain who were recruited from both urban and rural settings, across various community support groups. The total sample was 470. Instruments for the quantitative studies included the Revised Adult Attachment Scale (Collins & Read, 1990), the McGill Pain Questionnaire (Melzack, 1975), the Pain Patient Profile (Tollinson & Langley, 1992), the Quality of Life Inventory (Frisch, 1994), the International Association for the Study of Pain Assessment Protocol (International Association for the Study of Pain, 1986), the Migraine Disability Scale (Stewart, Lipton, Kolodner, Liebermann, & Sawyer, 1999), and the short form of the Eysenck Neuroticism Scale (Eysenck, Eysenck, & Barret, 1985). The clinical and non-clinical participants with a diagnosis of chronic pain syndrome were partitioned as securely or insecurely attached. In the clinical sample, the proportion of securely attached individuals was less than one quarter of the group, while in the non-clinical sample the proportion of individuals in the securely attached group was 50%. For Study 1, (200 individuals from the clinical sample), the groups were partitioned using the classification criteria of Collins and Read (1990). Securely attached participants = 27%, insecurely attached 73%. An analysis of effect of attachment style on overall pain showed that the Securely Attached group reported less overall pain than the Insecurely Attached group. For Study 2, (using the total clinical sample), the sample comprised 27.3% securely attached and 72.7% insecurely attached participants. The Securely Attached group reported less overall Pain, less Negative Affect and Somatisation than the Insecurely Attached group, and higher levels of Quality of Life. Somatisation provided a significant unique contribution of variance to predicting overall Pain, providing some support for the biopsychosocial model, and Negative Affect (Depression and Anxiety combined) made a significant unique contribution to Quality of Life, explaining 26% of the variance. Gender was unrelated to any variable. For Study 3, the sample consisted of rural and urban participants, and the rural group was significantly older than the urban group. No other differences were found. The groups were combined to form the non-clinical group. The group was evenly divided (50%) between securely and insecurely attached groups. Gender was unrelated to any variable. For the non-clinical group, using the variables investigated in Study 2, there was no difference on overall pain scores, but negative affect and somatisation were higher and quality of life lower in the insecure group than in the secure group. No differences were found on Pain Intensity but Pain Pattern differed between the groups. Three new variables were added to the model - Neuroticism, Function and Disability. Disability and Function were significantly different between the attachment style groups. Age was significantly related to lower pain scores, less loss of function, less disability and higher quality of life. Pain scores were most related to somatisation, with age and quality of life contributing significant variance. Neuroticism added further to this explanation. Negative Affect made the most contribution to the variance explained in quality of life, and neuroticism and function made no significant contribution. Neuroticism and Attachment Style contributed significant amounts of variance to Function. To compare the Secure and Insecure Attachment groups in the Clinical and Non-clinical samples, a matched groups study, N = 190, was conducted. Clinical and non-clinical participants were matched for Age, Gender and Attachment Style. No differences were reported on overall pain between the attachment groups, but differences existed on negative affect, somatisation and quality of life. For sample type, the clinical group reported higher overall pain scores, less negative affect and less somatisation, but no differences were found on quality of life, compared to the non-clinical group. Study 4 was a qualitative study that used structured interviews of 24 clinical and non-clinical participants matched for age, gender, attachment style and etiology. The securely attached group reported having extensive, positive social support, high community involvement and appropriate reliance on medical and allied health care and medications. The insecurely attached group reported more problems with physical pain and psychological distress, less social support, less function and more perceived disability. The insecurely attached group reported more use of medical, allied and alternative health resources. Older securely attached individuals reported the lowest overall pain scores and the highest quality of life. These results support the hypotheses that a secure attachment style contributes to more positive outcomes for individuals with chronic pain syndrome and were consistent with a model of chronic pain that includes biological, psychological and social variables.

Recent research into marital satisfaction has highlighted distan.ce regulation as a central source of controversy in couples' relationships ((Byng-Hall, 1991b, 1995; Marvin & Stewart, 1990; Pistole, 1994; Stevenson-Hinde, 1990). Shifts in the spatial arrangements or structural elements of the marital couple may escalate or de-escalate attachment behaviour and partners continually regulate this distance in order not to experience separation anxiety. Albeit differently, structural family, theory (Minuchin, 1974) also emphasizes the spatial arrangements of the couple and how these differentially affect the Viability of the system. In view of the fact that both attachment theory and structural family theory are concerned with the spatial arrangements of the couple, this research proposes to examine the interface between these theories and how they may jointly, rather than separately, inform research into marital satisfaction. Opportunistic sampling of 6 groups was undertaken and self-report questionnaires assessing sociodemographics,.attachment styles, attachment history, marriage structure and marital satisfaction distributed to married couples only. Self-report questionnaires comprised the following assessment instrume,nts: the Close Relationships Questionnaire (Hazan & Shaver, 1987) measuring attachment style (viz. secure, anxious/ambivalent, avoidant); an Adjective Checklist measuring attachment-history variables (Hazan & Shaver, 1987); the Adult Attachment Scale (Collins & Read, 1990) measuring attachment dimensions (viz. Close, Depend, Anxiety); the Family Adaptability and Cohesion Scales (FACES III) (Olson, Portner & Lavee, 1985) measuring-.Qoth marriage structure (viz. the variables cohesion and adaptability) and marital satisfaction; and a 5-item Marital Satisfaction Scale compiled by the researcher. The final sample constituted 82 participants of which 34 were couples and 14 were individuals. The 14 individual respondents comprised 10. wives and 4 husbands. Statistical analyses included Pearson correlation coefficients, a Canonical Discriminant Functions Analysis, one-way analyses of variance (ANOVA's), chi-square /tests of independence and t-tests. Hypotheses examined the relationship between family/couple structure, attachment classifications and marital satisfaction. Relationships between individual attachment classifications and marriage structure (viz. cohesion and adaptability) (FACES III - Olson , et al., 1985) were, for the most part, not supported. The hypothesis investigating the relationship between individual attachment classifications and satisfaction with the marriage was, for the most part, not supported, however, the second part of the hypothesis investigating the relationship between couple attachment classifications and couples' satisfaction with the marriage showed a significant relationship between couple attachment style groupings (viz. secure husband, anxious wife, etc.) and one of the scales measuring couple satisfaction. Some significant relationships were found between individuals' attachment classifications and their recollection of childhood relationships with parents and parents' relationships with one another. In view of the fact that research into this area has only recently been embarked upon, it is concluded that future research using multiple methods of assessment be undertaken in order to more comprehensively establish the merits or otherwise of combining attachment theory and structural family theory in research into marital satisfaction. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1996.

Attachment refers to a strong emotional bond with special people in a person?s life, in whose presence the person experiences pleasure, joy and comfort in times of stress. The first attachment in life is commonly formed between an infant and primary caregiver, which is usually the mother. The caregiving provided by the mother or caregiver will determine whether a secure or insecure attachment pattern is formed. Attachment theory indicates that this first attachment forms the basis for a cognitive representation, the so-called internal working model, which becomes part of the person?s personality and forms the foundation of the person?s perception of the self and the world as well as of all future interpersonal relationships. As infancy is a sensitive period for the development of attachment, the prenatal period could be an appropriate time to educate expecting mothers about the importance of secure attachment and their role in the development thereof. The researcher therefore wished to explore whether antenatal programmes could be used as a platform for teaching expecting mothers about attachment. As a starting point, the goal of this study was to explore the perceptions of antenatal programme presenters on including training on attachment into antenatal programmes. The study was based on a qualitative research approach, and applied research as the type of research. A collective case study research design was adopted and data was collected by means of semi-structured interviews that were conducted with a sample of ten presenters of antenatal programmes in the Tshwane district. The participants were selected by means of purposive sampling. Data was analysed according to methods for qualitative data analysis, and relevant ethical considerations were followed during the study. The research findings indicate that the participants were aware of the importance and benefits of secure attachment and that they had a positive attitude towards the inclusion of training on attachment into antenatal programmes. They were eager to receive training on attachment and to adapt their programmes to include training on attachment. The researcher concludes that it would be feasible and beneficial to include training on attachment into antenatal programmes, and to train antenatal programme presenters for this purpose. The provision of training on attachment to nurses and raising awareness of attachment in the private and public health care sectors could facilitate greater knowledge of attachment for expecting mothers. Further research in diverse settings, such as in private and public clinics and hospitals in different geographical areas, is recommended. / Mini Dissertation (MA)--University of Pretoria, 2016. / Social Work and Criminology / MA / Unrestricted

Thesis (M.A. (Clinical Psychology)) --University of Limpopo, 2010 / There is a considerable literature linking aspects of personality, attachment,and identity development. Five hundred and thirty one boarding school learners participated in a study of the relationship between identity, assessed with the Ochse’ Erikson scale (Ochse, 1983; Ochse & Plug, 1986), EPIES (Rosenthal et al., 1981), PIES (Markstrom et al., 1997), and Tan’s Eriksonian Ego Identity (Tan et al., 1977); domicile (rural or urban), and attachment assessed with The Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment Revised (IPPA-R; Gullone, & Robinson, 2005). No relationship was found between domicile, and the development of attachment and identity. Results of the current study revealed no significant relationship between attachment, identity development and home background of individuals. Keyword: Attachment; Identity formation; Internal working models; Exploration; Commitment.