O padrão de sobreposição de nicho e a co-ocorrência, bem como as interações positivas e negativas entre espécies de Anastrepha, com base em matrizes com dados de abundância e presença-ausência, foi avaliado. As populações de Anastrepha foram estudadas também quantativamente para avaliar sua distribuição e a flutuação populacional das espécies predominantes. O estudo foi realizado em duas áreas antropizadas, denominadas Fazenda Areão e Monte Olimpo, do campus \"Luiz de Queiroz\", Universidade de São Paulo, Piracicaba, SP. O estudo foi baseado em 52 coletas por meio de 14 armadilhas tipo McPhail distribuídas nas duas áreas. Foram coletadas 1.583 fêmeas pertencentes a 14 espécies: A. amita Zucchi, A. barbiellinii Lima, A. bistrigata Bezzi, A. daciformis Bezzi, A. distincta Greene, A. fraterculus (Wiedemann), A. grandis (Macquart), A. manihoti Lima, A. montei Lima, A. obliqua (Macquart), A. pickeli Lima, A. pseudoparallela (Loew), A. serpentina (Wiedemann) e A. sororcula Zucchi. Na Fazenda Areão, foram coletadas mais espécimes (1.041), em comparação ao Monte Olimpo (542), que, entretanto, apresentou o maior índice de diversidade de espécies. Anastrepha fraterculus, A. obliqua e A. pseudoparallela foram predominantes na Fazenda Areão; no Monte Olimpo, apenas A. fraterculus e A. pseudoparallela foram predominantes. A média de sobreposição de nicho foi maior que o esperado ao acaso para as duas áreas, portanto, os nichos ecológicos das espécies, em grande parte, se sobrepõem. O padrão de co-ocorrência indicou a ocorrência de dois pares de espécies não aleatórios que segregaram: A. pseudoparallela x A. obliqua na Fazenda Areão e A. fraterculus x A. pseudoparallela no Monte Olimpo. A segregação indica que pode haver competição por algum recurso dentro do nicho. A análise também apresentou três pares agregados: A. bistrigata x A. montei e A. fraterculus x A. barbiellinii para a Fazenda Areão e A. fraterculus x A. bistrigata para o Monte Olimpo, indicando que cada par coexiste pacificamente, sem que haja interferência na permanência das populações de moscas-das-frutas nas áreas. O nível populacional mais elevado ocorreu de agosto a dezembro, nas duas áreas, quando as temperaturas oscilaram entre 18 e 24°C, com pico populacional em setembro. / The niche overlap pattern and co-ocurrence, as well as positive and negative interactions among Anastrepha species, based on abundance matrix data and presence-absence data was evaluated. The populations of species of Anastrepha was analyzed quantitatively to evaluate its distribution and the populational fluctuation of predominant species. The study was carried out in two anthropic areas, Fazenda Areão and Monte Olimpo, at \"Luiz de Queiroz\" campus, Universidade de São Paulo, Piracicaba, SP. The research was based on 52 samplings obtained over 14 McPhail traps distributed in these two areas. It was captured 1,583 females belong 14 species: A. amita Zucchi, A. barbiellinii Lima, A. bistrigata Bezzi, A. daciformis Bezzi, A. distincta Greene, A. fraterculus (Wiedemann), A. grandis (Macquart), A. manihoti Lima, A. montei Lima, A. obliqua (Macquart), A. pickeli Lima, A. pseudoparallela (Loew), A. serpentina (Wiedemann) and A. sororcula Zucchi. It was collected more specimens (1,041) at Fazenda Areão, comparing with the ones at Monte Olimpo (542), that showed the highest species diversity index. Anastrepha fraterculus, A. obliqua and A. pseudoparallela were the predominant species at Fazenda Areão; at Monte Olimpo, only A. fraterculus and A. pseudoparallela were predominant. The niche overlap mean was higher than randomly expected for these two areas. Therefore, the species ecological niches mostly overlap. The coocurrence pattern indicated the ocurrence of two non-randomized pair of species that segregated: A. pseudoparallela x A. obliqua at Fazenda Areão, and A. fraterculus x A. pseudoparallela at Monte Olimpo. The segregation indicates that can exist three aggregated pairs: A. bistrigata x A. montei and A. fraterculus x A. barbiellinii at Fazenda Areão; and A. fraterculus x A. bistrigata at Monte Olimpo, indicating that each pair coexists pacifically, with no interference in the permanence of the fruit fly populations in the areas. The highest populational level occurred from August to December, when temperatures oscillated between 18 and 24°C, with the population peak in September.

O padrão de sobreposição de nicho e a co-ocorrência, bem como as interações positivas e negativas entre espécies de Anastrepha, com base em matrizes com dados de abundância e presença-ausência, foi avaliado. As populações de Anastrepha foram estudadas também quantativamente para avaliar sua distribuição e a flutuação populacional das espécies predominantes. O estudo foi realizado em duas áreas antropizadas, denominadas Fazenda Areão e Monte Olimpo, do campus \"Luiz de Queiroz\", Universidade de São Paulo, Piracicaba, SP. O estudo foi baseado em 52 coletas por meio de 14 armadilhas tipo McPhail distribuídas nas duas áreas. Foram coletadas 1.583 fêmeas pertencentes a 14 espécies: A. amita Zucchi, A. barbiellinii Lima, A. bistrigata Bezzi, A. daciformis Bezzi, A. distincta Greene, A. fraterculus (Wiedemann), A. grandis (Macquart), A. manihoti Lima, A. montei Lima, A. obliqua (Macquart), A. pickeli Lima, A. pseudoparallela (Loew), A. serpentina (Wiedemann) e A. sororcula Zucchi. Na Fazenda Areão, foram coletadas mais espécimes (1.041), em comparação ao Monte Olimpo (542), que, entretanto, apresentou o maior índice de diversidade de espécies. Anastrepha fraterculus, A. obliqua e A. pseudoparallela foram predominantes na Fazenda Areão; no Monte Olimpo, apenas A. fraterculus e A. pseudoparallela foram predominantes. A média de sobreposição de nicho foi maior que o esperado ao acaso para as duas áreas, portanto, os nichos ecológicos das espécies, em grande parte, se sobrepõem. O padrão de co-ocorrência indicou a ocorrência de dois pares de espécies não aleatórios que segregaram: A. pseudoparallela x A. obliqua na Fazenda Areão e A. fraterculus x A. pseudoparallela no Monte Olimpo. A segregação indica que pode haver competição por algum recurso dentro do nicho. A análise também apresentou três pares agregados: A. bistrigata x A. montei e A. fraterculus x A. barbiellinii para a Fazenda Areão e A. fraterculus x A. bistrigata para o Monte Olimpo, indicando que cada par coexiste pacificamente, sem que haja interferência na permanência das populações de moscas-das-frutas nas áreas. O nível populacional mais elevado ocorreu de agosto a dezembro, nas duas áreas, quando as temperaturas oscilaram entre 18 e 24°C, com pico populacional em setembro. / The niche overlap pattern and co-ocurrence, as well as positive and negative interactions among Anastrepha species, based on abundance matrix data and presence-absence data was evaluated. The populations of species of Anastrepha was analyzed quantitatively to evaluate its distribution and the populational fluctuation of predominant species. The study was carried out in two anthropic areas, Fazenda Areão and Monte Olimpo, at \"Luiz de Queiroz\" campus, Universidade de São Paulo, Piracicaba, SP. The research was based on 52 samplings obtained over 14 McPhail traps distributed in these two areas. It was captured 1,583 females belong 14 species: A. amita Zucchi, A. barbiellinii Lima, A. bistrigata Bezzi, A. daciformis Bezzi, A. distincta Greene, A. fraterculus (Wiedemann), A. grandis (Macquart), A. manihoti Lima, A. montei Lima, A. obliqua (Macquart), A. pickeli Lima, A. pseudoparallela (Loew), A. serpentina (Wiedemann) and A. sororcula Zucchi. It was collected more specimens (1,041) at Fazenda Areão, comparing with the ones at Monte Olimpo (542), that showed the highest species diversity index. Anastrepha fraterculus, A. obliqua and A. pseudoparallela were the predominant species at Fazenda Areão; at Monte Olimpo, only A. fraterculus and A. pseudoparallela were predominant. The niche overlap mean was higher than randomly expected for these two areas. Therefore, the species ecological niches mostly overlap. The coocurrence pattern indicated the ocurrence of two non-randomized pair of species that segregated: A. pseudoparallela x A. obliqua at Fazenda Areão, and A. fraterculus x A. pseudoparallela at Monte Olimpo. The segregation indicates that can exist three aggregated pairs: A. bistrigata x A. montei and A. fraterculus x A. barbiellinii at Fazenda Areão; and A. fraterculus x A. bistrigata at Monte Olimpo, indicating that each pair coexists pacifically, with no interference in the permanence of the fruit fly populations in the areas. The highest populational level occurred from August to December, when temperatures oscillated between 18 and 24°C, with the population peak in September.

<p>Modern economic activities, like industry and agriculture, as well as household activities, generate an important amount of refuse. The way we collect, transport, and dispose it will determine the level of environmental contamination. May animals exploit refuse as a food source (i.e., anthropogenic food subsidy) and gulls are the most important group. Refuse subsidizes energetically gull populations, which impacts on their acquisition and allocation of resources, as well as on the environment, with ecological and evolutionary consequences are not well understood. In this dissertation we evaluated potential impacts of refuse on gulls by doing a literature review as well as empirical research on the Kelp Gull (<i>Larus dominicanus</i>) in the Rio de la Plata Estuary in South America. Direct and indirect impacts of refuse on gull species and the environment have been observed during the review process. We have detected positive impacts of refuse on body size, chick growth, fecundity, reproductive success, and population dynamics. However, negative impacts were also found focusing on fecundity, reproductive success, and population dynamics. Indirect negative impacts on other species, water bodies, and airport security were also found. Refuse produces numerous impacts on gulls at the individual, population, and species levels, with indirect negative consequences on ecosystems. There is a need to reduce the access of gulls to sources of refuse to mitigate the existing and potential conflicts with human activities and other species, especially those that are threatened and endangered. During our empirical research we found that refuse was ingested and assimilated by Kelp Gull chicks during the chick rearing period and that the ecological niche width increased with the age of the chick. We propose that parents incorporate isotopically unique food sources to nestling’s diet during their growth, increasing isotopic diversity of nestlings. Additionally, we found that refuse could affect foraging decisions of females during the pre-incubation period, which could positively affect future fecundity and negatively impact reproductive success. We found also that refuse consumption on fecundity and reproductive success of gulls is generally studied at the colony level, using conventional diet techniques, but not much has been done using stable isotopes at the individual level, making comparisons among studies and conclusions difficult to address. We encourage other researchers to continue incorporating the isotopic ecology perspective to study the effect of food subsidies on gulls. Additionally, we found that Kelp Gull on the coast of the Rio de la Plata Estuary ingest plastic debris. We conclude that plastic bags and plastic films might be the most important source of contaminants for the Kelp Gull on the coast of the estuary. Main findings of this dissertation suggests the need for an improvement of waste management practices and a regulation of plastic production and use in Uruguay to reduce plastic ingestion by gulls. Finally, next steps for research are provided in this important area of environmental science and natural resource management.</p>

La capacité à répondre aux changements environnementaux est cruciale pour l’établissement et la persistance des populations dans un système hétérogène. Les processus sous-jacents à cette capacité peuvent prendre différentes formes. La grande diversité génétique (et phénotypique) découlant de la reproduction sexuée est un des processus permettant à une population de répondre aux différentes conditions environnementales par la survie d’au moins quelques individus. D’autre part, les processus épigénétiques, en permettant la modification du patron d’expression des gènes, contribuent également à la variation phénotypique. Ces variations peuvent survenir accidentellement (épimutations) ou en réponse à un stimulus environnemental (plasticité). Les processus épigénétiques représenteraient ainsi une alternative à la variation génétique pouvant expliquer le succès écologique des organismes génétiquement identiques. Toutefois, les génotypes ne répondent pas tous de la même façon aux conditions environnementales ; certains génotypes sont considérés comme généralistes et peuvent s’acclimater à une vaste gamme de conditions environnementales alors que d’autres sont plutôt spécialistes et restreints à un type d’environnement donné. L’objectif général de cette thèse est de mettre en évidence certains des processus responsables de la persistance des organismes asexués en déterminant les relations entre la variation épigénétique, la variation phénotypique et les stratégies écologiques. Pour ce faire, des hybrides asexués Chrosomus eos-neogaeus, un poisson à reproduction clonale, ont servi de modèle biologique. Se reproduisant par gynogenèse, les lignées clonales (génotypes) doivent faire face aux mêmes variations environnementales que les espèces parentales sexuées. De plus, la répartition géographique de chacune des lignées suggère la présence de génotypes généralistes et spécialistes. L’analyse de ces lignées en milieux naturels et en milieux contrôlés a permis de décortiquer l’influence des variations génétique, environnementale et épigénétique sur la variation phénotypique. Dans un premier temps, les modèles de stratégies généraliste et spécialiste ont été testés de manière empirique : (i) des analyses génétiques ont permis d’inférer les processus historiques expliquant la diversité et la répartition actuelle des lignées clonales ; (ii) l’analyse du patron de ii méthylation de différentes lignées a permis de déterminer l’importance relative des sources de variations épigénétiques selon les fluctuations environnementales et de les associer à une stratégie écologique : une importante influence de l’environnement ou une plus grande stochasticité dans l’établissement des marques épigénétiques étant associées à la plasticité phénotypique ou au bet-hedging, respectivement ; et (iii) le rôle de la plasticité phénotypique dans la diversification de niches écologiques a été souligné par la comparaison de la variation de la morphologie trophique en milieux naturels et contrôlés. D’autre part, le second volet de cette thèse a permis d’associer un coût (détection d’une instabilité développementale) à la plasticité phénotypique et d’élaborer une hypothèse sur l’existence d’un handicap démographique nécessaire afin d’expliquer la situation contre-intuitive concernant la coexistence des organismes gynogènes et de leurs hôtes sexués. La compréhension des différents mécanismes sous-jacents au succès écologique des organismes face aux variations environnementales permet ainsi une meilleure évaluation de leur potentiel évolutif et fournit des outils supplémentaires pour leur protection face à un environnement changeant. / The capacity to cope with environmental changes is crucial to the establishment and persistence of populations. The processes underlying such a capacity can take different forms. The high genetic (and phenotypic) diversity arising from sexual reproduction is one process that allows to cope with different environmental conditions through the survival of at least a few individuals. On the other hand, epigenetic processes, allowing the modification of gene expression, are also responsible for phenotypic variation. Epigenetic changes may occur accidentally (epimutations) or in response to an environmental stimulus (plasticity). Thus, epigenetics would represent an alternative process to genetic variation to explain the ecological success of genetically identical organisms. However, genotypes are not equally capable of coping with environmental changes. Some genotypes are generalists and can acclimatize to a wide range of environmental conditions, whereas other genotypes are specialized and restricted to narrow environmental conditions. The general objective of this thesis is to highlight the processes responsible for the persistence of asexual organisms by determining the relationship between epigenetic processes, phenotypic variation and ecological strategies. To achieve this, the clonal hybrid fish Chrosomus eos-neogaeus were used as a biological model. By reproducing by gynogenesis, the clonal lineages (genotypes) are distributed among the same environments than the sexual parental species. Moreover, the geographical distribution of the lineages suggests the presence of generalist and specialist genotypes. The analysis of these lineages in natural and controlled conditions allowed to disentangling the influence of genetic, environmental and epigenetic variations on phenotypic variation. On the one hand, generalist and specialist strategies were empirically tested: (i) genetic analyses were used to infer the historical processes explaining the diversity and the current distribution of the clonal lineages; (ii) the comparison of methylation patterns in different lineages allowed to determine the dynamism of the epigenetic processes according to environmental fluctuations and to associate them with an ecological strategy: an important environmental or stochastic effect on epigenetic variation being associated with phenotypic iv plasticity or bet-hedging, respectively; and (iii) the role of phenotypic plasticity in niches diversification was highlighted by comparing individuals’ trophic morphology in natural and controlled conditions. On the other hand, the second part of this thesis has allowed to associate a cost (developmental instability) to phenotypic plasticity and to propose a hypothesis about the existence of a demographic handicap necessary to explain the paradox regarding the coexistence of sexual and asexual sperm-dependent organisms. Understanding these different mechanisms underlying the ecological success of organisms in face of environmental heterogeneity allows us to better establish their evolutionary potential and provides additional tools to protect them against changing environments.