Edamame is becoming more popular in the U.S. due to its high nutritional value and potential health benefits. However, more than 70% of edamame is imported from outside of the U.S. Therefore, developing elite edamame genotypes is critically desirable to increase the domestic production of edamame in the U.S. Genotype, planting location, and harvest time play essential roles in the chemical composition of edamame, which further decide edamame's nutritional value and sensory characteristics. Therefore, the first goal of this study is to comprehensively evaluate the chemical composition of edamame genotypes grown in different locations. Ten selected edamame genotypes were grown in three locations in the U.S. - Whitethorne, Virginia (VA), Little Rock, Arkansas (AR) and Painter, VA. Sugars, alanine, protein, oil, neutral detergent fiber (NDF), starch, ash, and moisture contents, were comprehensively analyzed. The results showed that location had significant effects on all chemical components of edamame with p < 0.05. Compared to Painter and Little Rock, genotypes planted in Whitethorne had higher averaged free sucrose, fructose, glucose, raffinose, stachyose, and starch contents and total sweetness. The highest crude protein and oil contents were found on edamame planted in Painter, while Little Rock produced edamame with the highest free alanine, ash, and moisture contents. Genotype significantly affected chemical compositions except for NDF and raffinose. Therefore, planting location and edamame genotype should be considered when producing elite edamame for the U.S. market. Chemical composition changes with the development of edamame; therefore, harvest time is essential for harvesting high-quality edamame. The second objective of this study is to quantify the changes in both physical and chemical properties of edamame over bean development and apply a combined spectroscopy and machine learning (ML) technique to help determine the optimal harvest time. Physical and chemical properties were analyzed for edamame harvested at R5 (beginning seed), R6 (full seed), and R7 (beginning maturity) growth stages, and the spectral reflectance (360 – 740 nm) of edamame pods was measured using a handheld spectrophotometer. The samples harvested at different stages were labeled as 'early,' 'ready,' and 'late.' At R6, pod/bean weight and pod thickness reached the peak and then stayed stable, while sugar, alanine, starch, and glycine also peaked at R6 but declined afterward. The spectra-based ML method had high accuracy (0.95) when classifying 'early' and 'late' edamame, and the accuracy was 0.87 for classifying 'early' and 'ready' edamame. These results indicated that this spectra-based ML method could determine the optimal harvest time of edamame. Food waste and loss not only lead to economic loss but also significant greenhouse gas emissions. With edamame food/snack production increasing, edamame shells, the low-value byproduct from this processing, will potentially threaten the environment. Similar to other food processing byproducts, edamame shell is rich in dietary fiber (DF). However, the high concentration of insoluble dietary fiber (IDF) limits its application as a food additive. Therefore, extraction/modification processes are needed to convert IDF to soluble dietary fiber (SDF) and improve the properties of edamame shell-derived DF. Ball milling is one of the most efficient techniques to break down biomaterials into sub-micro-level particles. Citric acid, as a natural and safe food additive, can help break down cell walls and improve the dissolution of SDF by ionizing the hydrogen ions with carboxyl groups. Therefore, the third objective of this study is to develop a process that combines ball milling and citric acid treatments to produce SDF from edamame shells. We investigated different treatment parameters, including different citric acid concentrations, treatment temperatures and time, and the application of ball milling. To determine if the combined treatment can potentially improve the properties of the produced SDFs, we characterized the physicochemical, morphological, structural, rheological, thermal, and functional properties of SDFs produced at different conditions. The results showed that the highest SDF yield (19.5%) was found when the edamame shells were pretreated by a ball mill. In addition, the combined citric acid and ball milling treatment altered several properties of the produced SDFs, including particle size, morphology, and crystallinity. Moreover, ball milling treatment led to a higher exothermic temperature peak of SDF indicating better thermal stability. All produced SDFs significantly elevated the production of short-chain fatty acids during in vitro fermentation (compared to the control fermentation) which indicated their potential benefits of promoting gut health. Overall, we demonstrated that ball-milling-assisted citric acid processing can be an effective green technique to produce SDF from edamame shells. The SDF produced from edamame shells can be regarded as a promising and novel ingredient with great potential to be used in foods. / Doctor of Philosophy / Edamame is becoming increasingly popular among consumers in the U.S. because it is nutritious and good for health. However, more than 70% of edamame in the U.S. market is imported from other countries. Therefore, having more edamame genotypes that adapt to the growing environment in the U.S. will help increase the domestic production of edamame. Genotype and planting location are essential in deciding edamame's nutritional value and taste. Therefore, the first objective of this study is to comprehensively understand the nutritional value of different edamame genotypes grown in three planting locations. The results showed that both location and genotype affected the nutritional values of edamame, indicating that planting location and edamame genotype should be considered when developing better edamame for the U.S. market. Nutritional value and sweetness change with the growth of edamame beans. Therefore, harvest time is crucial for harvesting edamame with better nutrition and taste. This study's second objective is to observe edamame's nutritional factors and sweetness over bean development and develop a method using a handheld colorimeter to help determine the optimal harvest time. The results showed that the edamame harvested at the full seed stage (called R6) is the sweetest compared to the other two stages. In addition, the handheld colorimeter combined with the machine learning technique showed high accuracy in separating 'early' and 'late' harvested edamame and 'early' and 'ready' harvested samples. These results indicated that the combination of colorimeter and machine learning could help determine the optimal harvest time of edamame. Food waste and loss not only lead to economic loss but also significant greenhouse gas emissions. Edamame shells, the low-value byproduct from edamame snack/food processing, will potentially threaten the environment if edamame consumption keeps increasing. Like other food waste, edamame shell is rich in dietary fiber (DF). Therefore, it is vital to find a way to recover the DF in edamame for other applications. Ball milling is a green technology that can efficiently break down big particles. Citric acid is a natural and safe food additive and can help break down insoluble cell walls. Therefore, this study aims to produce soluble dietary fiber (SDF) from edamame shells using ball milling and citric acid. We proved that ball-milling assisted acid processing can be an environmentally friendly method to produce edamame shell SDF which can potentially be used as a suitable food ingredient.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:25:19Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2009-12-08Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T19:11:55Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 pessoa_r_me_jabo.pdf: 7575464 bytes, checksum: bfd8798495b474e388b7b64cc038a277 (MD5) / Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP) / A soja-hortaliça ou edamame é de linhagem da soja comum Glycine max (L.) Merril, com sabor mais suave ao paladar humano, pode ser consumida “in natura” quando os grãos ainda estão verdes. O objetivo desta pesquisa foi avaliar a infestação de ovos e ninfas Bemisia tabaci (Genn) biótipo B, e o parasitismo natural de ninfas por Encarsia spp. nos genótipos de soja-hortaliça JLM-003, JLM-004, JLM-010, JLM-018, JLM-019, JLM-020, JLM-024, JLM-030, BRS-36 e BRS-155 e elaborar chave de identificação para espécies de Encarsia que ocorrem na cultura da soja-hortaliça. O experimento foi conduzido na FCAV/UNESP- Câmpus de Jaboticabal-SP, na área experimental do Departamento de Produção Vegetal Setor de Olericultura e Plantas Aromático-Medicinais, O delineamento experimental foi em Blocos Casualizados, com 10 tratamentos (genótipos) e cinco repetições, com parcelas de quatro linhas de plantio com de 5 metros de comprimento no espaçamento de um metro entre linhas. As amostragens da infestação de mosca-branca foram realizadas semanalmente, até a fase de frutificação estádio (R6). Para avaliação foi coletado um folíolo central do terço médio de três plantas ao acaso de cada parcela. Foram contados ovos e as ninfas de moscabranca em todo limbo foliar, assim como as ninfas parasitadas por Encarsia spp. Nas avaliações dos principais genótipos com potencial de mercado para soja-hortaliça, conclui-se que os genótipos JLM-030 e JLM-010 apresentaram menor infestação pela mosca-branca e maiores índices de porcentagem de ninfas parasitadas por Encarsia spp. Foram identificadas três espécies Encarsia lutea (Masi), Encarsia nigricephala Dozier e Encarsia porteri (Mercet). Na elaboração da chave de identificação foram utilizadas exemplares machos e fêmeas de Encarsia das espécies acima citadas / The vegetable soybean, called edamame, comes from the common soybean Glycine max (L.) Merril, having a softer taste to the human palate, can be consumed “in natura” when the greens are still fresh. This research aim was evaluate the Bemisia tabaci (Genn) biotype B eggs and nymphs’ infestation and the Encarsia spp. natural nymphs’ parasitism in the JLM-003, JLM-004, JLM-010, JLM-018, JLM-019, JLM- 020, JLM-024, JLM-030, BRS-36, and BRS-155 edamame genotypes, as well elaborate identification keys to Encarsia species that occurs in the edamame. The experiment was carried out at FCAV/UNESP, Jaboticabal Campus, in the experimental area of the Departamento de Produção Vegetal, Setor de Olericultura e Plantas Aromático- Medicinais (Vegetal Production Department, Horticulture and Aromatic-Medicinal Plants Sector). The Experimental design used was the randomized blocks, with 10 treatments (genotypes) and five replications; four-lines planting parcel five meters length and one meter between lines. Whitefly infestation samplings were done weekly, until the R6 stage (fructification phase). To the evaluation, a central leaflet was collected from the thirdmedium of the three plants collected randomly of each parcel. Whitefly eggs and nymphs were counted in all limbo foliar, as well as nymphs parasited by Encarsia spp. The main edamame market-chance genotypes evaluated could be concluded that the genotypes JLM-030 and JLM-010 presented lower whitefly infestation and higher percentage of parasited nymphs by Encarsia spp. Three species were identified: Encarsia lutea (Masi), Encarsia nigricephala Dozier, and Encarsia porteri (Mercet). During the identification key elaboration, Encarsia male and female specimens of the three species above cited were used

Edamame (Glycine max (L.) Merr.), also known as vegetable soybean, is primarily grown and consumed in Asia. In recent years, the demand for edamame in the United States has risen due to its health benefits as an alternative, plant-based protein. Due to the lack of domestic production, most edamame is imported from Asia. In an attempt to increase domestic production, research efforts have begun in Virginia and other regions to develop cultivars and best management practices for growing edamame in the mid-Atlantic region. Beginning in 2018, edamame trials examining breeding lines and cultivars were conducted to look at their suitability for this region. These varieties were sampled and evaluated for insect and disease complexes as well as their implications on plant yield and quality. Most of the insects and diseases that were found were very similar to pest complexes commonly found in cultivated soybeans in Virginia. However, due to edamame being marketed as a vegetable, insects and diseases that caused unsightly blemishes or damage to the pods or seeds were most concerning. Multiple insects and diseases were present but some of the most important insects and diseases we observed from 2018-2020 were pod feeding stink bug (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), as well as the diseases like purple seed stain, Cercospora kikuchii, and bacterial pustule, Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. glycines. From 2019-2021 an integrated pest management study was conducted to determine best management practices for minimizing insecticide applications while applying them at thresholds to control key pests. In three growing seasons, I was able to determine that pesticides can be limited prior to flowering while insecticide inputs will need to be increased after flowering to protect the pods from pests, specifically stink bugs. Additionally, from 2019-2021 insecticide and fungicide field trials were conducted to test different pesticides on their efficacy against pod damaging pests and diseases. The growing seasons between 2019 and 2021 resulted in varying insect and disease pressure that led to inconsistent results. However, insecticides such as cyclaniliprole and sulfoxaflor performed well compared to other treatments. Lastly in 2020-2021, corn earworm (Helicoverpa zea [Boddie], Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), an important soybean pest and most likely a major pest of edamame, was tested for pyrethroid susceptibility and resistance across the state using a bean-dip bioassay. Pyrethroid efficacy to control this pest across Virginia seemed to vary by location and year, however, the bean-dip bioassay proved to be a time-efficient strategy for further monitoring these populations in the coming years. / Doctor of Philosophy / Edamame, also known as vegetable soybean, is primarily grown and consumed in Asia. Due to the lack of domestic production, most edamame is imported from overseas. Edamame trials were conducted in Virginia beginning in 2018, to look at production practices suitable for growing this crop in the region. Scientists observed edamame to document insect and disease complexes as well as their implications on yield and quality. Most of the insects and diseases that were found were very similar to what is known to already occur in soybeans. However, due to edamame being marketed as a vegetable, insects and diseases that left blemishes or damage to the pod were most concerning. Multiple insects and disease were present but some of the most important insects and diseases we observed were pod feeding stink bug species as well as the diseases purple seed stain and bacterial pustule. In 2019-2021 a pest management study was conducted to determine best management practices for minimizing insecticide applications while applying them at thresholds to control key pests. We were able to determine that pesticide usage can be limited prior to flowering while they will need to be increased after flowering to protect the pods. Additionally, in 2019-2021 insecticide and fungicide field trials were conducted to determine the efficacy of materials against pod damaging pests and diseases. The growing seasons between 2019 and 2021 resulted in varying insect and disease pressure, however, several insecticides with reduced ecological impacts out preformed others. Lastly in 2020-2021, corn earworm, a major pest of soybean and presumable of edamame, was tested for pyrethroid susceptibility and resistance across the state using a bean-dip bioassay. Pyrethroid efficacy across Virginia seemed to vary by location and year but the bean dip bioassay method proved to be a time-effective strategy for monitoring the states corn earworm populations against insecticides.

Persistent interest in edamame, vegetable soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.), by U.S. consumers has continued to fuel the development of a domestic edamame supply chain. Studies have shown edamame to be a nutritious specialty crop with potential to provide economic benefit to local growers. Domestically bred and grown edamame has shown to be preferred by growers and consumers with competitive agronomic traits. While domestic varieties of edamame will encourage growers to produce a product catered towards the domestic market, additional considerations of final product quality are necessary to positively influence the market success. Domestically grown and store-bought edamame samples were utilized to research quality attributes including flavor, taste, and texture of edamame representative of domestic market and supply chain. Solid phase microextraction was utilized for aroma extraction prior to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and gas chromatography-olfactometry (GC-O) analyses to obtain (1) impactful volatile compounds present, (2) changes in these compounds by stink bug feeding injury, and (3) volatile contributions to sensory characteristics. Sensory methods were utilized to (1) evaluate differences in perception of edamame with and without stink bug feeding injury, and (2) understand important sensory characteristics for domestic edamame. Volatile analysis recognized 16 volatile compounds when investigating edamame genotypes with 14 compounds having significant differences in contents by genotype. Only 10 compounds were consistently detected through GC-O by panelists, so called aroma-active compounds, and only one compound (E)-2-octenal was significantly different in odor intensities across genotypes. Stink bug injured samples showed dramatic differences in volatile profile compared with the not injured counterpart, from mass chromatogram; however, no noticeable differences were perceived by GC-O or sensory difference testing. An instrumental texture analysis method was proven to be sensitive enough to detect the textural differences of edamame beans after processing. The multi-dimensional sensory characteristics including taste, aroma, and texture, were established showing significant differences by edamame variety and growing location. Domestically bred edamame was found to be sweeter, as is preferred by domestic consumers, confirming encouraging breeding outcome. Despite significant differences in edamame volatile profiles by genotype and stink bug feeding injury, sensory discrimination of these differences seems to be less noticeable than changes from taste and texture. Utilizing our findings toward future research and product development will support the domestic edamame supply chain by providing a foundational understanding of quality attributes and their impacts. / Doctor of Philosophy / Edamame, or vegetable soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.), has been gaining popularity in the U.S. as plant based and alternative proteins continue to see increased attention. Research has shown edamame to be a nutritious specialty crop with potential to provide economic benefit to local growers. Edamame developed and grown in the U.S. has been shown to be preferred by growers and consumers. Understanding the quality of these products is important for a positive and lasting presence in the market. In this work, locally grown edamame as well as storebought edamame were investigated for flavor and texture. Chemistry methods to research volatile compounds were used to determine impactful flavor compounds, changes in these compounds caused by stink bug injury, and specific aroma of these compounds in edamame. Sensory methods were used to determine differences in edamame injured by stink bugs and to determine taste, flavor, and texture terms related to local edamame. This work identified 16 volatile compounds consistently in edamame samples with 14 being found to vary in amount by edamame genotype. Only 10 volatile compounds were detected through human sniffing results with only one being found to vary in amount of aroma detected by edamame genotype. Edamame showing visual signs of stink bug feeding injury showed different amounts of chemical compounds compared to the uninjured edamame, but aroma detected by human sniffing and sensory evaluation did not show differences. A method using a texture instrument was proven to be sensitive enough to detect even minor differences of edamame beans by texture. Sensory qualities including taste, aroma, and texture, were found to have differences in edamame based on edamame variety and growing location of the edamame. Locally bred and grown edamame was found to be sweeter than comparable edamame, as is preferred by consumer in the U.S. Despite differences in volatile compounds in edamame as identified in volatile analysis by differences in stink bug feeding injury, edamame genotype, and growing location, detection of these differences through aroma and taste by human panelists is not seen in this work. Providing these understanding of sensory qualities and their impact on the edamame will help support the local edamame supply in decision making and product development.

Orientadora: Nilza Maria Martinelli / Banca: Arlindo Leal Boiça Junior / Banca: Valmir Antonio Costa / Resumo: A soja-hortaliça ou edamame é de linhagem da soja comum Glycine max (L.) Merril, com sabor mais suave ao paladar humano, pode ser consumida "in natura" quando os grãos ainda estão verdes. O objetivo desta pesquisa foi avaliar a infestação de ovos e ninfas Bemisia tabaci (Genn) biótipo B, e o parasitismo natural de ninfas por Encarsia spp. nos genótipos de soja-hortaliça JLM-003, JLM-004, JLM-010, JLM-018, JLM-019, JLM-020, JLM-024, JLM-030, BRS-36 e BRS-155 e elaborar chave de identificação para espécies de Encarsia que ocorrem na cultura da soja-hortaliça. O experimento foi conduzido na FCAV/UNESP- Câmpus de Jaboticabal-SP, na área experimental do Departamento de Produção Vegetal Setor de Olericultura e Plantas Aromático-Medicinais, O delineamento experimental foi em Blocos Casualizados, com 10 tratamentos (genótipos) e cinco repetições, com parcelas de quatro linhas de plantio com de 5 metros de comprimento no espaçamento de um metro entre linhas. As amostragens da infestação de mosca-branca foram realizadas semanalmente, até a fase de frutificação estádio (R6). Para avaliação foi coletado um folíolo central do terço médio de três plantas ao acaso de cada parcela. Foram contados ovos e as ninfas de moscabranca em todo limbo foliar, assim como as ninfas parasitadas por Encarsia spp. Nas avaliações dos principais genótipos com potencial de mercado para soja-hortaliça, conclui-se que os genótipos JLM-030 e JLM-010 apresentaram menor infestação pela mosca-branca e maiores índices de porcentagem de ninfas parasitadas por Encarsia spp. Foram identificadas três espécies Encarsia lutea (Masi), Encarsia nigricephala Dozier e Encarsia porteri (Mercet). Na elaboração da chave de identificação foram utilizadas exemplares machos e fêmeas de Encarsia das espécies acima citadas / Abstract: The vegetable soybean, called edamame, comes from the common soybean Glycine max (L.) Merril, having a softer taste to the human palate, can be consumed "in natura" when the greens are still fresh. This research aim was evaluate the Bemisia tabaci (Genn) biotype B eggs and nymphs' infestation and the Encarsia spp. natural nymphs' parasitism in the JLM-003, JLM-004, JLM-010, JLM-018, JLM-019, JLM- 020, JLM-024, JLM-030, BRS-36, and BRS-155 edamame genotypes, as well elaborate identification keys to Encarsia species that occurs in the edamame. The experiment was carried out at FCAV/UNESP, Jaboticabal Campus, in the experimental area of the Departamento de Produção Vegetal, Setor de Olericultura e Plantas Aromático- Medicinais (Vegetal Production Department, Horticulture and Aromatic-Medicinal Plants Sector). The Experimental design used was the randomized blocks, with 10 treatments (genotypes) and five replications; four-lines planting parcel five meters length and one meter between lines. Whitefly infestation samplings were done weekly, until the R6 stage (fructification phase). To the evaluation, a central leaflet was collected from the thirdmedium of the three plants collected randomly of each parcel. Whitefly eggs and nymphs were counted in all limbo foliar, as well as nymphs parasited by Encarsia spp. The main edamame market-chance genotypes evaluated could be concluded that the genotypes JLM-030 and JLM-010 presented lower whitefly infestation and higher percentage of parasited nymphs by Encarsia spp. Three species were identified: Encarsia lutea (Masi), Encarsia nigricephala Dozier, and Encarsia porteri (Mercet). During the identification key elaboration, Encarsia male and female specimens of the three species above cited were used / Mestre

The United States is a world leader of soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] production, but to maintain quality production at this level, soybean management needs to be continually monitored and improved. Sulfur (S) deficiencies in soybean have become more frequent in the U.S. due to fertilizer purity, emissions regulations, and higher yields. We completed a study for soybean grown in sandy loam soils in the mid-Atlantic coastal plain system to determine proper S fertilizer rate and application timing. Yields ranged from 1,236-4,051 kg ha-1. Neither S rate nor application timing influenced yield. S treatments increased methionine concentration (methionine = -0.0001 S rate2 + 0.002 S rate + 5.60). Sulfur fertilization can improve soybean quality and may impact marketability. Another study was conducted to determine optimal source and rate of S application for soybeans in the Mid-Atlantic coastal plain system. Yields ranged from 1,316-4,914 kg ha-1. While sulfur rate did not influence yield and fertilizer source responses were site-specific. Sulfur leaf tissue concentrations were directly related to S rate (S concentration = 0.004S rate + 2.103). Nutrient uptake responses to S fertility indicate the potential for S yield responses in the future when soils become S depleted and contain less available S. Soybean producers and retailers in the United States are interested in capitalizing on new edamame markets to provide a domestic product. To aid the shift from oilseed production to vegetable production, a study was conducted to determine the optimal N rate and N application timing for edamame yield and quality in the Mid-Atlantic coastal plain system. Nitrogen rate significantly increased yield one out of three years (Yield = 29.9N Rate + 3387) when all N was applied at planting but was not significant with split applications. Fertilizer rate and timing did not impact edamame maturity or final pod/bean quality. N fertilizer applied at-planting may aid edamame yield and profit for sandy loam soils in the mid-Atlantic, USA. Currently, mid-Atlantic coastal plain soils, coupled with S deposition, are able to supply enough S for soybean growth and development, but without fertilization soybean soils are being mined of S and will eventually become depleted. Sulfur must be monitored if future deficiencies are to be avoided. Nitrogen fertilizers may improve yield in vegetable soybean production. Both oilseed and vegetable soybean farmers should continue to monitor soil nutrient levels to ensure proper nutrition for soybean growth and development. / Doctor of Philosophy / Soybean (Glycine max L. [Merr.]) is a diverse crop used across various industries: from vegetables for human consumption to protein for animal feed or even additives for roofing sealants. The U.S. is a world leader in soybean production. To maintain quality production at this level, soybean management needs to be continually monitored and improved. Sulfur (S) and nitrogen (N) fertilizers are one current area of interest in soybean production and management. This dissertation will discuss both. Historically, acid rain, which contained high levels of S, provided all the necessary S for proper soybean growth and development. In recent years, industry emissions regulations have decreased the amount of S entering the air, thereby decreasing S deposits in acid rain. At the same time, soybean yields are increasing, and higher production requires higher amounts of inputs. Therefore, because S is a necessary input, it is being taken from the soil to meet the needs of high yielding soybean. Less and less S remains in the soil for future soybean crops. This study was conducted to determine proper sulfur fertilizer applications, to ensure quality and quantity soybean production for Virginia farmers. Yields ranged from 1,236-4,914 kg ha-1. Currently, soils contain sufficient S levels for proper growth and development, but if current trends persist sulfur deficiencies will become apparent in the future. Although the U.S. soybean production is abundant, most of the vegetable soybean, also called edamame, consumed in U.S. is imported. The interest in providing a domestic edamame product has led soybean farmers to reevaluate and adapt soybean production strategies to fit a vegetable crop. Edamame is the same species as oilseed soybeans commonly grown throughout the US, but instead of waiting until the seed is dry, edamame is harvested when the seed is still green. This study also was conducted to provide nitrogen fertilizer recommendations for Virginia soybean farmers hoping to adjust their farms to produce quality vegetable soybean. Nitrogen fertilizer improved edamame gross production one out of three years. Continual observation of soil nutrient levels and soybean health is necessary to ensure quality growth and production for both oilseed and vegetable soybean.

Edamame, also known as edible soybean, is a crop with growing demand in the United States. Currently much of the edamame consumed in the United States is imported, but it has potential to be grown domestically, in Virginia and other mid-Atlantic states. With the introduction of a new crop, however, comes new challenges, such as novel pests. The broad-headed bugs (Hemiptera: Alydidae), a relatively insignificant pest of conventional soybean, have been observed in high numbers on edamame in Virginia. Their piercing-sucking feeding may produce dark marks on edamame beans that could result in economic losses. However, little research has been conducted on the pest status or management of these bugs in edamame. This study aims to determine their pest potential to edamame by investigating their distribution throughout the state, damage to the crop, and avenues for chemical control. An important element in determining the pest potential of an insect is its distribution throughout an area. The distribution of broad-headed bugs in Virginia was last thoroughly investigated in 1975, and the research has scarcely been updated since. With advances in technology, however, it is now possible to crowd-source data from citizen scientists to supplement museum and field collection data. The first portion of this study explores the species of broad-headed bugs present in Virginia, and their distribution throughout the state. This was achieved using museum specimens, field-collected specimens, and photographs from the social network iNaturalist. By manually checking iNaturalist identifications of broad-headed bugs using a key, I was able to determine that iNaturalist is 96% accurate at identifying North American broad-headed bugs to species. Through the combination of museum, field, and iNaturalist data, I also found evidence of two species of broad-headed bug at elevations never before seen in Virginia, the first broad-headed bug ever found on the Eastern Shore of Virginia, as well as the first documented sighting of Hyalymenus tarsatus Fabricus in Virginia. The level of injury that broad-headed bugs cause to edamame is presently unknown. The second portion of this study compares the density-damage relationship of broad-headed bugs on edamame to that of the brown marmorated stink bug (Halyomorpha halys Stahl), a known pest of edamame. Through a cage study conducted in Whitethorne, Virginia, I found that broad-headed bugs cause significant damage to edamame at densities of 10 insects per plant, but still less damage than that of brown marmorated stink bugs. Currently, no economic injury thresholds exist for broad-headed bugs, or brown marmorated stink bugs on edamame. Determining the density-damage relationship of these insects on edamame may contribute to the creation of these thresholds in the future. The third portion of this study is the first attempt at evaluating chemical control of the broad-headed bugs on edamame. I performed a bioassay evaluation of four commercial selective insecticides including the following: flupyradifurone and sulfoxaflor, both with a mode of action similar to neonicotinoids, but with reduced non-target effects; the diamide cyclaniliprole, and a novel venom-like peptide insecticide, GS-omega/kappa-Hxtx-Hv1a. Each of the insecticides caused significant mortality of Alydus eurinus (Say) adults. This thesis serves as a starting point in evaluating the potential threat of broad-headed bugs to Virginia's edamame production. / Master of Science in Life Sciences / Alydids are a group of true bugs, often referred to as broad-headed bugs. Not many species are known to occur in Virginia. However, after research began in Virginia in 2018 to develop edible soybean (edamame) for production in the state, we observed high densities of broad-headed bugs feeding on edamame pods on research farms and commercial fields. Broad-headed bug feeding may produce dark marks that leave edamame beans unmarketable. Very little is known about the pest status or management of broad-headed bugs as a crop pest, or about their distribution and biology in general. This study aims to address these questions. An important element in determining the pest potential of an insect is its distribution throughout an area. The distribution of broad-headed bugs in Virginia was last thoroughly investigated in 1975, and the research has scarcely been updated since. With advances in technology, however, it is now possible to crowd-source data from citizen scientists to supplement museum and field collection data. The first portion of this study explores the species of broad-headed bugs present in Virginia, and their distribution throughout the state. This was achieved using museum specimens, field-collected specimens, and photographs from the web and mobile application iNaturalist. By manually checking iNaturalist identifications of broad-headed bugs using an identification key, I was able to determine that iNaturalist is 96% accurate at identifying North American broad-headed bugs to species. Through the combination of museum, field, and iNaturalist data, I also found evidence of two species of broad-headed bug at elevations not previously reported, the first broad-headed bug ever found on the Eastern Shore of Virginia, as well as the first documented sighting of Hyalymenus tarsatus (Fabricus) in Virginia. The second portion of this study compares the damage of broad-headed bugs on edamame to that of the brown marmorated stink bug, a known pest of edamame. By caging broad-headed bugs on edamame plants in Whitethorne, Virginia, I found that they cause significant damage to edamame at 10 insects per plant, but still less damage than that of brown marmorated stink bugs. Determining the density-damage relationship of these insects on edamame may determine their potential as a pest, as well as inform growers when to apply insecticides. The third portion of this study is the first attempt at determining avenues of chemical control of the broad-headed bug Alydus eurinus (Say), one of the two most likely species to be a pest of edamame. I performed a laboratory evaluation of four commercial selective insecticides including the following: flupyradifurone and sulfoxaflor, both with a mode of action similar to neonicotinoids, but with reduced non-target effects; the diamide cyclaniliprole, and a novel venom-like peptide insecticide, GS-omega/kappa-Hxtx-Hv1a. These insecticides have limited detrimental effects on beneficial organisms. Each of the insecticides was effective against A. eurinus. This study serves as a starting point in evaluating the potential threat of broad-headed bugs to Virginia's edamame production.

Sustainability of the soybean industry relies on the growth of new industries and the continued improvement of seeds for utilization. Grower adoption and growth of the edamame industry has been slow in part due to insufficient information on its potential profitability and marketability. As such, the first and second objectives of this thesis aimed at 1) determining production costs of hand-harvested fresh edamame enterprise and 2) exploring consumer willingness-to-pay (WTP) for fresh, local, organic, and "on-the-stalk" marketed edamame. Sucrose, raffinose, and stachyose sugars hold tremendous implications for utilization of soybean seeds in livestock, soyfood, and probiotics industries. Current sugar phenotyping methods using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) are costly and inefficient. Therefore, the third objective of this study was to develop calibrations to predict sugar content using near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS). Results showed that labor accounted for 72% of production costs for edamame pods, which largely limits its profit potential. Mean WTP for fresh and local edamame exceeded their frozen and non-local counterparts by 94 and 88 cents, respectively. In addition, mean WTP for organic edamame exceeded non-GMO edamame by 33 cents. Pro-environmental attitudes appeared to be a consistent driver of WTP these three attributes. Meanwhile, a 40-cent discount for "on-the-stalk" edamame compared to pods indicates convenience may also be a factor in edamame marketability. Calibration development for sucrose and stachyose was successful, with R2cal, R2cv, RMSEC, and RMSECV of 0.901, 0.869, 0.516, and 0.596, and 0.911, 0.891, 0.361, and 0.405, respectively. Alternative methods should be investigated for quantification of raffinose. / Master of Science / Sustainability of the soybean industry relies on the growth of new industries and the continued improvement of seeds for utilization. Grower adoption and growth of the edamame industry has been slow in part due to insufficient information on its potential profitability and marketability. As such, the first and second objectives of this thesis aimed at 1) determining production costs of hand-harvested fresh edamame and 2) exploring relative marketing potential of fresh, local, organic, and "on-the-stalk" edamame. Sucrose, raffinose, and stachyose sugars hold tremendous implications for utilization of soybean seeds in livestock, soyfood, and probiotics industries. Current methods of quantifying sugar are costly and time inefficient. Therefore, the third objective of this study was to develop prediction models to estimate sugar content using near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS). Results showed that labor accounted for 72% of production costs for edamame pods, which largely limits its profit potential. Fresh and local edamame showed considerable marketing potential over frozen and non-local edamame. In addition, organic edamame showed marginal marketing benefit over non-GMO. Pro-environmental attitudes were an important driver of these results. Meanwhile, on-the-stalk edamame shows poor marketing potential, likely due to preference for convenience of food preparation in the U.S. NIRS prediction models for sucrose and stachyose showed strong predictive accuracy and low error, suggesting potential for implementation. The prediction model for raffinose, however, remained poor.

Entre os maiores desafios existentes para a cultura da soja, os estresses bióticos e abióticos se destacam e a incidência de patógenos como a ferrugem asiática, causam grandes perdas aos produtores. No Brasil, a ferrugem é a principal causa de prejuízos nas lavouras e estratégias para o seu controle mais eficiente são necessárias. O melhoramento genético para a tolerância constitui uma importante ferramenta para manter a ferrugem em níveis abaixo de dano econômico por um período mais duradouro. Outro aspecto importante da cultura da soja é relacionado com a sua utilização, destacando-se a produção de farelo com alto teor de proteína e de óleo comestível e combustível. Apesar de apresentar uma rica composição nutricional, o seu uso direto na alimentação humana ainda não é comum no Brasil. Uma das formas de incluir a soja na dieta é na forma de hortaliça, também conhecida como Edamame, em que as vagens são colhidas ainda verdes ou imaturas (estádio R6) e os grãos consumidos após breve cozimento. Contudo, poucos esforços têm sido dedicados para desenvolver novos genótipos com boa performance agronômica e adequados ao consumo humano. O presente trabalho teve o objetivo de avaliar genótipos de soja para a produção de soja hortaliça que apresentem tolerância à ferrugem. Para isto foram realizados cruzamentos entre seis genitores com boas características agronômicas em um esquema dialélico 6x6, gerando 15 cruzamentos. Estes genótipos foram avaliados nas gerações F2 e F3 para a produtividade e o tamanho das sementes, sendo que na geração F3, foram adicionados outros dez caracteres. Nas duas gerações, foi estimada a sua tolerância à ferrugem, utilizando manejos diferentes da doença com fungicidas. Foram realizadas análises de variância individuais e conjuntas, agrupamento de médias, análises dialélicas, tendo sido estimados os coeficientes de herdabilidade e correlações entre os caracteres. As análises mostraram a existência de variabilidade entre os genótipos avaliados e indicaram que os cruzamentos apresentaram desempenho superior aos genitores para caracteres importantes. O uso dos diferentes manejos da ferrugem com fungicidas mostrou-se eficiente uma vez que foi possível identificar genótipos tolerantes. Além disso, foram detectadas interações genótipos x ambientes significativas, fato que representou um desafio para a seleção dos melhores genótipos. Os genitores BRS 267, USP 13-66.136 e USP 13-19.007 destacaram-se por apresentar estimativas altas de capacidade de combinação e os cruzamentos USP 13-66.136 x USP 13-19.007, USP 13-66.136 x USP 13-19.034, BRS 267 x USP 13-19.007 e Tengamine x USP 13-19.007 apresentaram os melhores desempenhos. As estimativas de capacidade específica de combinação (Sii) dos genitores indicaram a existência de divergência entre eles e os caracteres apresentaram altas herdabilidades. A magnitude e a significância das correlações indicaram a possibilidade de seleção de genótipos precoces com sementes grandes e, também, evidenciaram que a seleção de genótipos com período mais longo entre R6 e R7 (SGR6) beneficia a produtividade. Portanto, foi possível identificar genitores e cruzamentos promissores para o desenvolvimento de novas linhagens apropriadas para a produção de soja hortaliça com tolerância à ferrugem. / Among the major challenges for soybean cultivation, biotic and abiotic stresses stand out and the incidence of pathogens such as Asian rust can cause extensive losses to farmers. In Brazil, rust is the main cause of crop damage and strategies for a more efficient control are necessary. Breeding for tolerance is an important tool to keep rust below economic damage for a longer period. Another important aspect of the soybean crop is related to its use, which is directed to the production of high-protein meal, edible oil and fuel. Although this legume has a rich nutritional composition, its direct use in the diet is still not common in Brazil. One of the ways to use soybean as food is in the form of vegetable, also known as Edamame, in which the pods are harvested green or immature (R6 stage) and the grains consumed after brief cooking. However, few efforts have been devoted to developing new soybean genotypes with good agronomic performance and characteristics suitable for human consumption. The present research had the objective of evaluating soybean genotypes for the production of vegetable soybean with rust tolerance. For this, crosses between six parents with good agronomic characteristics were performed in a 6x6 diallel scheme, generating 15 crosses. These genotypes were evaluated in the F2 and F3 generations for seed yield and size, and in the F3 generation, ten other traits were added. In both generations, tolerance to rust was estimated in experiments designed for different managements of the disease with fungicides. Individual and joint analyzes of variance, grouping of means, diallel analyzes, and estimation of heritability and correlation coefficients were performed. The analyzes showed the existence of variability among the evaluated genotypes and indicated that the crosses presented superior performance to the parents for important traits. The use of different rust managements with fungicides was efficient, since it was possible to identify tolerant genotypes. In addition, significant genotypes x environments interactions were detected, a fact that represented a challenge for the selection of the best genotypes. The parents BRS 267, USP 13-66136 and USP 13-19007 stood out for presenting high estimates of general combining ability and the crosses USP 13-66136 x USP 13-19007, USP 13-66136 x USP 13-19034, BRS 267 x USP 13-19007 and Tengamine x USP 13-19.007 presented the best performances. Estimates of specific combining ability (Sii) of the parents indicated divergence between them and the traits showed high estimates of heritability. The magnitude and significance of the correlations indicated the possibility of selecting early genotypes with large seeds and showed that the selection of genotypes with a longer period between R6 and R7 (SGR6) benefits seed yield. Therefore, it was possible to identify promising parents and crosses for the development of new lines suitable for the production of vegetable soybean with rust tolerance.

A soja é um dos alimentos mais completos conhecidos pelo homem. A soja hortaliça ou \"edamame\" pertence à mesma espécie da soja cultivada para grãos, Glycine max (L.) Merrill. Edamame é um nome de origem japonesa usado para um tipo de soja consumida no estádio imaturo R6 e, também, caracterizada por terem vagens e grãos de tamanho grande, melhor textura e sabor. Apresenta grande potencial nutracêutico, favorecendo a manutenção da saúde e a redução dos riscos de diversas doenças crônicas. Os principais objetivos deste trabalho foram: a) estimar parâmetros genéticos úteis ao melhoramento, especialmente a interação genótipos x ambientes; b) avaliar adaptabilidade e estabilidade dos genótipos e a representatividade de ambientes; c) caracterizar os cruzamentos e suas progênies visando-se à extração de linhagens superiores. Os genótipos compreendem 42 progênies nas gerações F6:10 a F6:13 de 23 cruzamentos e três testemunhas (BRS 257, BRS 267 e IAC 100). As avaliações experimentais foram feitas em dois estádios de desenvolvimento, soja imatura R6 (dois anos agrícolas, 2011/12 e 2012/13) e soja matura R8 (quatro anos agrícolas, de 2009/10 a 2012/13). Os quatro anos agrícolas e três locais (Anhumas, Areão e ESALQ) foram combinados em nove ambientes. Em cada ambiente foram realizados dois experimentos envolvendo manejos distintos de fungicidas; no primeiro experimento foram feitas aplicações sucessivas de fungicidas para controle da ferrugem asiática da soja (FAS) e das doenças de final de ciclo (DFC), enquanto que no segundo experimento foram aplicados fungicidas para controle somente das DFC. Cada experimento foi delineado em blocos ao acaso, com três repetições. Cada repetição foi estratificada em dois conjuntos experimentais com testemunhas comuns, cada um deles conformando um bloco aumentado de Federer. A parcela experimental foi uma fileira com 5 metros x 0,50 m. As fontes de variação \"anos\", \"locais\" e \"fungicidas\" contribuíram significativamente na interação entre genótipos e ambientes, em ambos os estádios R6 e R8. Para a produtividade de vagens (PV) em R6, o método de Eberhart e Russell destacou quatro cruzamentos (19-005: USP 98-06.005 x J-75, 19-006: USP 98-06.005 x Hakucho, 19-045: USP 98-06.031 x Hakucho e 19-111: USP 98-06.029 x OCEPAR-4), gerando 15 progênies (destaques para 19-045-03-01 e 19-111-02-06) com alto potencial para uso como genitores e ou cultivares. A análise AMMI revelou que a grande maioria dos genótipos mostraram-se estáveis e com PV em torno de 150 g/2plantas. O maior destaque ficou com a progênie 19-111-01-09, com desempenho muito favorável para os caracteres de R6, alta produtividade de grãos (PG) e tolerância à ferrugem em R8. Para o estádio R8, o efeito de locais determinou que Areão foi o melhor local, para PG e peso de cem sementes (PSC). Para o estádio R6, o efeito de anos indicou que o ano agrícola 2012/13 foi o que mais favoreceu o desempenho das progênies para todos os caracteres. Foram detectadas correlações altas e significativas entre os caracteres PCS em R8 e peso de cem vagens em R6 (0,808**), bem como entre PCS e largura das vagens em R6 (0,725**). / Soybean is one of the most complete food known by the human being. The vegetable soybean or \"edamame\" belongs to the same species of the soybean cultivated as commodity, Glycine max (L.) Merrill. Edamame is a name with Japanese origin used for maintenance and reduction of the risks of several chronic diseases. The main objectives of this study were: a) to estimate useful genetic parameters to the breeding program of soybean vegetable, specially the genotype x environment interaction; b) to evaluate adaptability and stability of the genotypes and the representativeness of the environments; c) to characterize crosses and their progenies aiming the extraction of superior inbred lines. The genotypes corresponded to 23 crosses and their 42 progenies in advanced generations of inbreeding, that is from F6:10 to F6:13 generation, besides three common checks (BRS 257, BRS 267, and IAC 100). They were evaluated in two developmental stages, immature R6 and mature R8 soybean, during two (2011/12 and 2012/13) and four (2009/10 to 2012/13) growing seasons, respectively. The four crop years and three locations (Anhumas, Areão and ESALQ) were combined in nine environments. In each environment, there were carried out two experiments involving two fungicide managements; in the first experiment, there were made successive fungicide applications for controlling Asian soybean rust (FAS) and late season leaf diseases (DFC), whereas in the second experiment there were made fungicide applications for controlling only DFC. Each experiment was designed in a randomized complete-block design with three replications. Each repetition was divided into two experimental sets with common checks, forming an augmented design (Federer). The experimental plot was a row with 5 m x 0.50 m. The \"crop years\", \"locations\" and \"fungicides\" contributed significantly to the genotypes x environments interactions in both R6 and R8 stages. For pod yield (PV) in the R6 stage, the Eberhart and Russell method highlighted four crossings (19-005: USP 98-06005 x J-75, 19- 006: USP 98-06005 x Hakucho, 19-045: USP 98-06031 x Hakucho and 19 -111: USP 98- 06029 OCEPAR-4), generating 15 progenies (especially the numbers 19-045-03-01 and 19- 111-02-06) with the highest potential to be used as parents and or as new cultivars. The biggest highlight was the progeny 19-111-01-09, with very favorable performance for R6 traits, high seed yield (PG) and tolerance to rust in R8. The AMMI analysis revealed that almost all genotypes were stable and with PV around 150 g/2plants. For the R8 stage, the location effect determined that Areão was the best location for PG and one hundred seed weight (PCS). For the R6 stage, the year effect indicated that the crop year 2012/13 was the most favorable for the progeny performance for all traits. There were estimated highly significant correlation between PCS in R8 and one hundred pod weight in R6 (0.808 **), as well as between PCS and pod width in R6 stage (0.725**).