Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / This thesis quantifies the net change of CO2 (NEE) in an irrigated rice crop cultivation in RS (Brazil). The research is part of the project CT-HIDRO, which presents as main purpose the description of surface conditions for different ecosystems in the country. Data were gathered during the cultivation period, from October 2003 to March 2004. During this time, the average air temperature and the incident radiation were suitable for the development of the culture in such an area. The turbulent flows, calculated by the eddy covariance method, overestimated the NEE value, probably due to the low estimate of breathing tax, because, during some night-times, sensor registered little turbulence. Moreover, other factor could have interfered in the result of the flows, for instance, the time in which the flows are calculated. The Webb correction was applied in the curve of NEE, and a value smaller than 1% was found. Such result didn't modify the previous result significantly. The behavior of CO2 flow during the whole analyzed period showed a maximum of -0,47mgCO2 m−2 s −1 in January 2004, what demonstrates the largest absorption of CO2 from the atmosphere by the plant during the day and a smaller liberation at night, due to the development phase in which the plant is. In this case, the Webb correction was also little emphasized, not interfering in the obtained result. The curves that demonstrate the three phases of development of the rice presented a larger absorption of CO 2 during the reproductive phase. The behavior of the flow of CO 2 showed a negative flow during the day, when the plant absorbs CO2 from the atmosphere, and a positive flow during the night, when the inverse process occurs, what was waited for. The latent heat flow presented larger diary average values from January to February, always with positive values, consequence of the rice crop irrigation. Two days with high values of flow of latent heat were obtained, what motivated the analysis of the energy balance. The closing of the energy balance was not reached in both days. A possible reason for that could be the low estimate of flows when the eddy covariance method was applied. / Este trabalho quantifica a troca líquida de CO2 (NEE) em uma área de cultivo de arroz irrigado no RS, como parte do projeto CT-HIDRO, projeto este que tem como finalidade descrever condições de superfície para diferentes ecossistemas do país. Os dados utilizados foram coletados durante o período de cultivo, entre outubro de 2003 e março de 2004. Neste período a temperatura média do ar e a radiação incidente são adequadas para o desenvolvimento da cultura nesta região. Os fluxos turbulentos, calculados pelo método de covariância de vórtices (eddy covariance), superestimaram o valor da NEE, provavelmente devido, a subestimativa da taxa de respiração, pois em alguns períodos noturnos os sensores registraram pouca turbulência. Além disso, outro fator que pode interferir no resultado dos fluxos, como por exemplo, o intervalo em que os fluxos são calculados. Foi aplicada a correção de Webb na curva de NEE e encontrou-se um valor menor que 1%, fato este que não modificou significativamente o resultado encontrado. O comportamento do fluxo de CO 2 durante todo o período analisado, mostrou um pico de -0,47mgCO2 m−2 s −1 , em janeiro de 2004, o que demonstra a maior captura de CO2 da atmosfera pela planta durante o dia e uma menor liberação à noite, devido a fase de desenvolvimento em que a planta se encontra. Neste caso, a correção de Webb também foi pouco acentuada, não interferindo no resultado obtido. As curvas que demonstram as três fases de desenvolvimento do arroz mostraram claramente uma maior absorção de CO 2 durante a fase reprodutiva. O comportamento do fluxo de CO 2 mostra um fluxo negativo durante à dia, quando a planta absorve CO2 da atmosfera e um fluxo positivo durante à noite quando ocorre o processo inverso, o que era esperado. O fluxo de calor latente apresentou maiores valores médios diários entre os meses de janeiro e fevereiro, apresentando sempre valores positivos, conseqüência da irrigação do campo de arroz. Obtivemos dois dias com valores elevados de fluxo de calor latente, o que fez com que analisássemos o balanço de energia. O fechamento do balanço de energia não foi alcançado em ambos os dias. Uma possível razão para isto pode ser o devido à subestimativa dos fluxos quando aplicado o método de covariância de vórtices.

För att ta reda på användbarheten av en specialkonstruerad lättviktsanemometer när det gälleratt beräkna turbulenta flöden, har mätdata från instrumentet använts i den så kallade inertialdissipationsmetoden. Resultatet har jämförts med direkta flödesberäkningar från enljudanemometer enligt turbulenta utbytesmetoden, vilka antas vara korrekta. Resultatanalyshar utförts från mätningar på höjderna 8, 16 och 20 m. Lättviktssanemometern (inertialdissipationsmetoden) visade sig stämma bra överens med ljudanemometern (turbulentautbytesmetoden) under nära neutrala förhållanden och vid höga vindhastigheter. Resultatenvisar ett inflytande av havsvågor och den bör därför användas vid uppbyggande sjö för attundvika detta. I rapporten presenteras en rekommendation med nödvändiga korrektioner föranvändning av lättviktsanemometern till turbulenta flödesberäkningar enligt inertialdissipationsmetoden. / In order to evaluate a combined cup anemometer/wind vane profile instrument, measurementsfrom the instrument has been used in the so called inertial-dissipation method to derive itsability to measure turbulent fluxes. The result was compared to data from a sonic anemometercalculated with eddy-correlation method, which is assumed to be correct. Analysis of theresult was made from measurements at levels 8, 16 and 20 m. The profile instrument (inertialdissipationmethod) agreed well with the sonic anemometer (eddy-correlation method) duringnear neutral conditions and at high wind speed. The profile instrument also proved to be mostaccurate at conditions of growing sea, otherwise the result was affected by waves. In thereport there is also a recommendation for specific corrections when the profile instrument isused for calculating turbulent fluxes according to the inertial-dissipation method.

<p>The uncertainty of the climate and health effects of aerosols is still large, one important reason being lack of knowledge of the primary emissions. This thesis combines laboratory and field experiments, and process modelling in an effort to better quantify the submicrometre aerosol emissions and to understand some of the processes in the atmosphere.</p><p>A parameterisation was derived for the source flux of sea salt particles (particles m^-2s^-1) in the size range 0.02-2.8 µm dry diameter (D_p), it is the first parameterisation to almost cover two full decades of the submicrometre sea salt aerosol production, and to include the effect of water temperature. This sea salt parameterisation was validated for temperate water in the 0.1-1.1 μm D_p range using in situ size resolved emissions of marine aerosol particles, which were measured with the eddy covariance (EC) method. For periods sampled air was heated to 300ºC in order to evaporate semi-volatile organics and isolate the sea salt fraction. Comparisons with the total aerosol emissions suggest that in these emissions organic carbon and sea salt are internally mixed in the same particles. Finally an aerosol dynamics model was modified for marine conditions. In the model parameterised emissions of sea salt was included together with aerosol dynamics, chemistry and clouds representative for the marine boundary layer. The sea salt emissions are together with secondary sulphate, and cloud processing able to reproduce a typical marine aerosol size distribution and cloud condensation nuclei population.</p><p>Measurements with the EC method of the road traffic related aerosol source number flux for D_p>0.011 µm show that the major part of the aerosol fluxes is due to road traffic emissions. Both an emission factor for the whole fleet mix in Stockholm (1.4x10¹⁴ vehicle^-1 km^-1) and separate emission factors for light- and heavy-duty vehicles (HDV) were deduced. The result shows that during weekdays 70-80% of the emissions come from HDV.</p>

The uncertainty of the climate and health effects of aerosols is still large, one important reason being lack of knowledge of the primary emissions. This thesis combines laboratory and field experiments, and process modelling in an effort to better quantify the submicrometre aerosol emissions and to understand some of the processes in the atmosphere. A parameterisation was derived for the source flux of sea salt particles (particles m-2 s-1) in the size range 0.02-2.8 µm dry diameter (Dp), it is the first parameterisation to almost cover two full decades of the submicrometre sea salt aerosol production, and to include the effect of water temperature. This sea salt parameterisation was validated for temperate water in the 0.1-1.1 μm Dp range using in situ size resolved emissions of marine aerosol particles, which were measured with the eddy covariance (EC) method. For periods sampled air was heated to 300ºC in order to evaporate semi-volatile organics and isolate the sea salt fraction. Comparisons with the total aerosol emissions suggest that in these emissions organic carbon and sea salt are internally mixed in the same particles. Finally an aerosol dynamics model was modified for marine conditions. In the model parameterised emissions of sea salt was included together with aerosol dynamics, chemistry and clouds representative for the marine boundary layer. The sea salt emissions are together with secondary sulphate, and cloud processing able to reproduce a typical marine aerosol size distribution and cloud condensation nuclei population. Measurements with the EC method of the road traffic related aerosol source number flux for Dp&gt;0.011 µm show that the major part of the aerosol fluxes is due to road traffic emissions. Both an emission factor for the whole fleet mix in Stockholm (1.4x1014 vehicle-1 km-1) and separate emission factors for light- and heavy-duty vehicles (HDV) were deduced. The result shows that during weekdays 70-80% of the emissions come from HDV.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is an important greenhouse gas, and the atmospheric concentration of CO2 has increased by more than 100 ppm since prior to the industrial revolution.  The global oceans are considered an important sink of atmospheric CO2, since approximately one third of the anthropogenic emissions are absorbed by the oceans. To be able to model the global carbon cycle and the future climate, it is important to have knowledge of the processes controlling the air-sea exchange of CO2. In this thesis, measurements as well as a model is used in order to increase the knowledge of the exchange processes. The air-sea flux of CO2 is estimated from high frequency measurements using three methods; one empirical method, and two methods with a solid theoretical foundation. The methods are modified to be applicable for various atmospheric stratifications, and the agreement between methods is good in average. A new parameterization of the transfer velocity (the rate of transfer across the air-sea interface), is implemented in a Baltic Sea model. The new parameterization includes also the mechanism of water-side convection. The impact of including the new parameterization is relatively small due to feedback processes in the model. The new parameterization is however more representative for flux calculations using in-situ measurement or remote sensing products. When removing the feedback to the model, the monthly average flux increases by up to 20% in some months, compared to when water-side convection is not included. The Baltic Sea carbon budget was estimated using the Baltic Sea model, and the Baltic Sea was found to be a net sink of CO2. This is consistent with some previous studies, while contradictory to others. The dissimilarity between studies indicates the difficulty in estimating the carbon budget mainly due to variations of the CO2 uptake/release in time and space. Local variations not captured by the model, such as coastal upwelling, give uncertainties to the model. Coastal upwelling can alter the uptake/release of CO2 in a region by up to 250%. If upwelling would be included in the model, the Baltic Sea might be considered a smaller sink of CO2.

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