This literature review was conducted after it was noticed that an active instruction approach in teaching mathematics was becoming more of a standard approach. This literature review aims to analyze and synthesize existing research regarding active and direct instruction, as well as examine how these instructional strategies support the promotion of flexible thinking in students, including their promotion of the Standards of Mathematical Practice related to flexibility in thinking. This review defines both active instruction and direct instruction, as well as compares the two strategies, particularly in terms of how well they promote flexible thinking in students. It was discovered that there exists an abundance of research regarding active instruction, including its promotion of flexible thinking, yet it was difficult to find articles advocating for direct instruction. From the research conducted, it appears that a more active approach is more conducive to the learning of mathematics for students in that it encourages flexible thinking, which is a necessary component of a successful mathematician. More research is needed to determine under which conditions these instructional strategies yield optimal results.

Alternate numeration systems are common in preservice teacher (PST) mathematics curricula, but there is limited research on how to leverage alternate systems to promote the development of mathematical knowledge for teaching. I analyzed the role of alternate numeration systems in three ways. I conducted a thematic analysis of current PST textbooks to consider the role of alternate numeration systems in written curricula. I conducted a teaching experiment to analyze PSTs' mathematical activity as they engaged with a base five task sequence to reinvent an algorithm for multiplication. And I introduced problematizing mathematical contexts as a design heuristic, situating this within the design theory of Realistic Mathematics Education. I found that alternate numeration systems can be leveraged to create opportunities for PSTs to (a) engage in guided reinvention of an algorithm, (b) improve understanding of base ten by comparing it to other numeration systems, and (c) reflect on their learning experience and the learning experiences of children.

The purpose of this descriptive study was to determine the accuracy and practicality of May's Poor Reader (PR) scoring system for the informal reading inventory (IRI), an individual assessment device designed to determine a student's instructional reading level. The PR is a qualitative scoring system developed by Frank May that examines only two miscues (defaults and meaning-denigrating substitutions) in arriving at an estimate of instructional reading level. The predictor variable, PR, was compared for accuracy and practicality with five other predictor variables consisting of four traditional quantitative scoring systems and an additional qualitative system of May's; PR was also compared with four criterion variables: (a) a scoring system created by Frank May on the basis of research concerning miscues and informal reading inventories, a system that requires the use of a context scale and a graphophonic scale, (b) the judgments of tape recordings made by an experienced and knowledgeable reading coordinator, (c) the judgments of ten reading teachers of the students under their tutelage, (d) and a silent reading score on Form B of the same IRI. The comparisons were made through the use of Chi square tests of significance in which each of the six predictor variables was compared with each of the four criterion variables as to accuracy of agreement with the criterion variables. Examination of the results showed that there were no significant differences between the instructional estimates made by the PR scoring system and two of the four criterion variables, the research based scoring system and the experienced reading coordinator. This was also true for May's third qualitative scoring system called the CGQ. All other differences in the estimates of instructional level were highly significant--with the four traditional predictor variables and with two of the four criterion variables (p < .01). The main implications drawn from this study were: (1) Classroom teachers and reading teachers may wish to make use of May's PR scoring system for the IRI as a quick and qualitative way of estimating students' instructional reading level. (2) Since the PR scoring system met the criteria established for a qualitative IRI scoring system, researchers may wish to use this system in studies of informal reading inventories.

The primary goal of undergraduate nursing programs is to prepare students for nursing practice. Achievement of this goal may be hindered by reliance on the scientific method in nursing education. Nursing practice often requires the ability to make judgments in situations of ambiguity without the benefit of objective data. The ability to rapidly "read" a situation and respond appropriately is critical to safe nursing care. This requires education in the intuitive way of knowing. Intuitive development may be impeded when students are taught to rely on the rational, scientific way of knowing. The end result may be that students are unprepared to meet the demands of nursing practice. Research on intuition in nursing has focused on nursing practice. To date, no study has explored intuition in nursing education. This study provides data on intuition in undergraduate nursing curricula. A descriptive research study was done on faculty members of the National League for Nursing (NLN). An intuition survey was developed and pilot tested on 10 undergraduate nursing faculty. The survey was sent to a random sample of 676 NLN faculty members nationally. A 51% $(N = 330)$ response rate was achieved. The survey included: (a) intuition attitudes, (b) attitudes toward including intuition in the undergraduate nursing curriculum, (c) intuition in the current curricula, (d) practices related to development and teaching of intuition, and (e) preparation for teaching about intuition. The major findings are: (1) Faculty expressed attitudes of value for intuition. (2) Faculty expressed attitudes that support the importance and appropriateness of including intuition but had concerns about including intuition. (3) Intuition is currently included in the undergraduate nursing curriculum on a limited bases. (4) Faculty use many strategies to develop their own intuition and to help students develop intuition. The majority of faculty rate the strategies as effective. (5) A limited number of respondents had preparation to teach about intuition and the majority expressed interest in learning more about intuition. (6) Program type, years in nursing education, and highest degree in nursing made a difference on intuition attitudes.

Middle school literature advocates interdisciplinary team organization as a structure that enhances student learning and teacher satisfaction. In an interdisciplinary team, teachers responsible for different content areas collaboratively plan the instructional program for a shared group of students. Yet, fewer than fifty percent of the nation's middle schools use an interdisciplinary team structure, and research indicates that teams are fragile and temporary. Few studies were found that described interdisciplinary team organization at the team or individual teacher level. The purpose of this case study is to describe the structure, dynamics, and outcomes of interdisciplinary teams of teachers in middle schools. The collection, analysis, and evaluation of data focused on four areas: (a) team structure including goals, roles, and leadership; (b) team dynamics ("teamness"), including collaboration, cohesion, and communication; (C) teacher affective outcomes of satisfaction, efficacy, and stress; and (d) teacher behavioral outcomes of curriculum and instruction and counseling and discipline. The researcher collected data from five sources of evidence including documents, structured interviews, key informant interviews, direct observation, and questionnaires. Two middle schools that were implementing interdisciplinary team organization for the first year were selected for the study. Their differences in demographics, teaming structure, and district/school history allowed for a basis of comparison and contrast. The data were organized and presented in four case studies of interdisciplinary teams and two cross-case analyses, providing a descriptive account of the experiences of teachers involved in an interdisciplinary team structure. The results of the study indicated that: Structural variables affected team planning. The level of teacher collaboration on teams was a developmental process. Teachers derived professional benefits and personal satisfaction from teaming and experienced a reduction of stress. Barriers of time and training impeded team effectiveness in the area of developing and implementing interdisciplinary curriculum. Further research on effective team practices is warranted, particularly on the effects of group process training and the developmental nature of team collaboration. In addition, further research is recommended on the effects of an interdisciplinary team structure on student learning outcomes and on teachers' day-to-day instructional practices in the classroom.

This I.R.B. approved study takes a look at the efficacy of small group workshops in the composition classroom and whether it is more beneficial for a student to remain in the same small groups between drafts, or whether it is better to change small groups and get a new set of eyes on a new draft. In my first-year English Composition course, ENG 103: Writing About Writing, I take a look at two different assignments, the Personal Narrative and the Research Paper, and how they changed over three drafts. Altering the group workshops for the first and second drafts, I administered surveys to scale how helpful the workshops were. To verify the results, I chose four different sets of essays to look at as case studies and break down how the drafts changed depending on the workshops. In the end, this study attempts to show how altering how small group workshops are run can be beneficial for the writer.

This document has been written to serve two distinct but related purposes. First, it is an attempt to describe a set of educational experiences which will be developed by a consortium of county-wide agencies to meet the existing as well as the emerging needs of learners in Rockland County, New York. To this end, a theoretical operational construct is explicated and the implementation strategies and tactics which are felt to insure a high degree of success for the program relative to realities extant in Rockland County are outlined. Second, an extended rationale reflecting the status of the American society, the value systems operating within that society, the history and current condition of the United States educational institution, and a preview of what the future needs of the United States may be, have been addressed and documented so that the system of alternative education suggested by the design of the consortium can be seen in its widest context. Without detailing the particular design outlined within the dissertation it should be noted that educational policy of the future must place the role of education within the broad context of societal goals. This demands a structure which encourages a unified approach that utilizes the expertise and the commitment of all people living in the society. To this end, a process has been established to aid a community design and implement a system of education which will be responsive to their ideals and their desires. The first step is to have the neighborhood, the city, the county, or whatever group is being involved in the project, to fully analyze their problems. They must then develop a set of approaches, priorities and goals that constitute their responses to local conditions. Finally, the concerned citizens must create an administrative structure that will pull together the various elements in the society to attack problems in their full breadth. Naturally, cooperation among all the society's institutions is needed to solve basic problems. The schools must learn to work not only with other elements of local government, but also with the larger community in order to enhance their key role.

Despite being expected by administrators to use cooperative learning regularly and effectively in their instructional practices, less than one third of high school teachers in the targeted U.S. public school district implemented the practices above a proficient level, according to district data. The purpose of this qualitative case study was to examine the motivation, strategies, and practices of a representative group of teachers at the high school who were rated highly effective on their 2016-2017 annual summative evaluation in cooperative learning. The research questions concerned the motivation of these teachers to include cooperative learning practices in their classrooms. Two additional research questions focused on the teachers' planning, implementation, and assessment of students and the challenges they encounter while employing cooperative learning practices. The participants included 10 teachers rated highly effective who were selected through homogeneous, purposeful sampling. Qualitative data were collected through semistructured interviews and document reviews of lesson plans and resources. Coding and thematic analysis were used to examine and report that data. Participants revealed concerns regarding the time involved in planning and implementing cooperative learning along with the difficulties of group composition and student assessment during the process. Based on the study results, a professional development series was designed to provide additional training and to establish a district wide definition of cooperative learning. This project study may facilitate positive social change by encouraging and supporting teachers as they better prepare students to overcome the challenges of collaboration and teamwork.

English learners (ELs) at a middle school in California were not meeting federal accountability requirements in English language arts (ELA). ELs lacking proficiency in ELA often drop out of high school and live in poverty as adults. The purpose of the study was to examine teachers' perceptions of their self-efficacy to implement effective pedagogical strategies to help ELs develop ELA proficiency. A case study design was used to investigate the problem through the lens of second language acquisition theory. The purposeful sample included 11 middle school language arts teachers. Participants completed an online anonymous survey, and responses were analyzed using open coding and analytical coding. The following 3 themes emerged from the data: teachers varied in their perceptions of their efficacy to support ELs, teachers perceived their teacher preparation and professional development experiences to be inadequate in preparing them to support ELs, and teachers blamed students and parents for the lack of proficiency in ELA. A professional development project was designed to address the findings and to help build teachers' pedagogical skills and self-efficacy in instructing ELs. Positive social change may be promoted by increasing teachers' ability to effectively instruct ELs, which will increase their efficacy with this population. ELs will benefit by possessing the reading, writing, and communication skills necessary for high school and postsecondary success and to be competitive in the workforce.

This correlational study assessed Nigerian educators' knowledge about attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and inclusive classroom management practices when serving students with ADHD. Specifically, the study examined the predictive correlation between teachers' demographic characteristics, including years of teaching experience, level of education, and knowledge about ADHD, as well as how their knowledge informed their choice of behavior management interventions. Teachers are accountable for pedagogical responsibilities including maintenance and management of a learning environment that promotes learning and inclusion. Further, they play a significant role in identifying and supporting students with learning impairments including ADHD. Thus, it is critical for teachers to have unambiguous knowledge about ADHD and evidence-based behavior management practices. One thousand teachers participated. The Knowledge of Attention Deficit Disorder Scale (KADDS) and the Teachers' Interventions for ADHD Students (TIAS) survey instruments were used for data collection. Descriptive statistics, multiple linear regression, and multinomial logistic regression were employed to analyze the data. Results indicated that teachers demonstrated high levels of misconception and limited knowledge regarding ADHD. Teachers' levels of education and years of teaching experience did not match or improve their cumulative knowledge of ADHD. Knowledge about ADHD predicted teachers' choice of behavior modification strategies for the characteristic behaviors of ADHD. Teachers implemented negative disciplinary consequences (consequence-based strategies) and multiple interventions for shaping specific negative behaviors associated with ADHD, indicating a lack of competence in classroom management practices. This study offers invaluable information on the status of Nigerian teachers' ADHD knowledge and classroom management practices and may inform decisions for the development and implementation of differentiated instruction strategies, teacher training, and academic curriculum to improve teachers' pedagogical competence and students' academic outcomes.