Cette thèse a pour objectif de proposer une modélisation performante des supercondensateurs à électrodes à base de carbone activé, composants de puissance présents dans un nombre croissant d’applications de stockage d’énergie. La première étape des travaux a consisté à mettre en évidence les phénomènes physico-chimiques, qu’ils soient électrostatiques ou électrochimiques grâce à des essais de caractérisation spécifiques et de vieillissement. L’analyse des résultats associée à la connaissance des matériaux constitutifs a conduit à attribuer le comportement non linéaire du supercondensateur aux phénomènes d’adsorption-désorption (électrosorption) et de diffusion anomale des espèces adsorbées dans le réseau microporeux de l’électrode. La prise en compte de ces phénomènes et de la capacité de double couche a permis de définir un modèle non linéaire fractionnaire dont les paramètres dépendent des grandeurs physico-chimiques de la cellule. La procédure proposée pour l’identification des paramètres du modèle repose sur la réponse en tension du supercondensateur à des profils de charges-décharges. Malgré la simplicité de l’identification, le modèle traduit fidèlement le comportement du supercondensateur soumis à des profils en courant typiques d’applications véhicules électriques et hybrides. / This work aim is an efficient modelling proposal for supercapacitors made of activated carbon electrodes which are power components used in many energy storage applications. In the first part of this study, the purpose is to evidence physico-chemical phenomena, electrostatic or electrochemical as well, thanks to characterization and aging tests. The results analysis combined with materials knowledge leads to suppose that the supercapacitor non linear behavior is due to adsorption-desorption processes and also to anomalous diffusion of adsorbed species into the electrode microporous network. These mechanisms in addition with the double layer capacitor principle allow us to define a non linear fractional model with parameters that depend on physic0-chemical characteristics of the cell. The proposed identification procedure is based on the voltage response to charges-discharge current profiles. In spite of the simplicity of this identification method, the model matches very well the behavior of the supercapacitor under current profiles that are typical of hybrid and electric vehicle applications.

Abstract<p><p>1.\ / Doctorat en Sciences de l'ingénieur / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

The task of research work is to study new mechanisms and to minimize disturbance of lead batteries for hybrid electric vehicles. Those arising under the PSoC (Partial State of Charge) and is linked to irreversible sulphation mainly negative electrodes. As one solution to prevent sulphation of the negative electrode appears to be the active ingredients in a negative matter. In the investigated electrodes is verified the influence of carbon, titanium dioxide and silica on the grain size of the order of nanometers.

Lead-acid batteries of hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) are functioning in PSoC regime (Partial State of Charge). In PSoC regime new fail mechanisms occur. These mechanisms usually lead to nonreversible sulphation of negative electrodes. Main aim of this research is to avoid negative electrode sulphation and to improve lifetime of lead-acid accumulators used in HEV.

This master´s thesis deals with possibilities of accumulation electric energy with the electric vehicles and their use for electric grid regulation services. In the introduction of this thesis is characterized the current world-wide state of electromobility, including the Czech Republic. Furthermore are summarized main advantages and disadvantages of the expanded involvement of the electric vehicles in the traffic. In the second part if this Master´s thesis the vehicles are divided into three main groups. The third part of the thesis describes the energy storage and generation units used in vehicles. In this part of the script are each of the energy storage parameters compared. The other chapter includes the list of current battery electric vehicles with all their important technical parameters. The fifth chapter summarizes the possibilities of the use of electric vehicles in the Vehicle-to-grid system. This chapter also discusses in detail the ancillary services of the electric grid in the Czech Republic. In the last part of this Master´s thesis there is calculated an economical potential of electric vehicles providing the primary and secondary regulation.

The thesis is focused on consumer behavior in relation to electric vehicles. In the beginning, the issue of alternatively fuelled vehicle is briefly introduced, including the explanation how this product is supported by the European Union. The next part is devoted to the theoretical background applied in the work. After the theoretical part, there is the literature review followed by both, the qualitative and the quantitative investigation. The results obtained were compared with the results stemming from international research projects. In accordance with the Theory of Diffusion of Innovations, the participants of qualitative survey were labelled as innovators or early adopters, for whom technical knowledge is more important. But on the other hand, for later adopters, the interpersonal relationship is more important, as they can compensate the lack of technical knowledge this way. As follows from the results of qualitative survey, decision-making connected with the acquisition of electric vehicles is influenced by the overall awareness (or knowledge, experience), then by technical characteristics of the purchase together with economic factors and by the perceived expectations of other people. Most of participants have some knowledge about electric vehicles. They often mention barriers preventing...

Durch die Integration mindestens eines weiteren Energiewandlers in den Antriebsstrang gewinnen parallele Hybridfahrzeuge einen zusätzlichen Freiheitsgrad gegenüber konventionellen Fahrzeugen. Neben der Auslegung und Effizienz der einzelnen Antriebskomponenten, ist vor allem die Nutzung dieses zusätzlichen Freiheitsgrades entscheidend dafür verantwortlich, inwiefern die beim Betrieb eines Hybridfahrzeugs erwünschten Ziele, wie die Minimierung des Kraftstoffverbrauchs oder der Abgasemissionen, erreicht werden können. Zuständig dafür sind sogenannte Betriebsstrategien. In einem ersten Schritt gibt die vorliegende Diplomarbeit einen Überblick aktueller Betriebsstrategieansätze für Fahrzeuge mit einer parallelen Hybridarchitektur und stellt ausgewählte Beiträge wertend gegenüber. Anschließend wird mit der optimierungsbasierten Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy (ECMS) ein vielversprechender Ansatz in ein MATLAB/Simulink-Längsdynamikmodell umgesetzt. Die für diesen Ansatz maßgebliche Bestimmung des Äquivalenzfaktors erfolgt dabei ohne Verwendung von Prädiktionsdaten. Eine Gegenüberstellung der erzielten Kraftstoffverbrauchswerte zu denen einer regelbasierten Betriebsstrategie, zeigt die Vorteile des implementierten ECMS-Ansatzes. Um den unterschiedlichen Ladezuständen am Fahrtende gerecht zu werden, wird eine ladungsabhängige Kraftstoffkorrektur vorgestellt.:Abbildungsverzeichnis VII Tabellenverzeichnis IX Abkürzungs- und Symbolverzeichnis X 1 Einleitung 1.1 Motivation 1.2 Zielstellung der Arbeit 1.3 Struktur der Arbeit 2 Energiemanagement paralleler Hybridfahrzeugarchitekturen 2.1 Hybridfahrzeuge 2.2 Hybridfahrzeugarchitekturen 2.3 Betriebsstrategien für parallele Hybridfahrzeugarchitekturen 2.3.1 Betriebsstrategie - Begriffsbestimmung und Einordnung in das Energiemanagement 2.3.2 Bewertungskriterien von Betriebsstrategien 2.3.3 Überblick Betriebsstrategien 3 Optimierungsbasierte Betriebsstrategien 3.1 Mathematischer Ansatz 3.1.1 Das parallele HEV als Anwendungsfall 3.1.2 Neben- und Randbedingungen 3.2 Globale optimierungsbasierte Betriebsstrategien 3.2.1 Dynamische Programmierung (DP) 3.2.2 PONTRJAGINsches Maximumsprinzip (PMP) 3.2.3 Approximation der Kennfelder 3.2.4 Suchheuristiken 3.3 Lokale optimierungsbasierte Betriebsstrategien 3.3.1 Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy (ECMS) 3.3.2 Gegenüberstellung ECMS und PMP 3.3.3 Bestimmung des Äquivalenzfaktors 3.4 Zusammenfassung der Vor- und Nachteile optimierungsbasierter Ansätze 4 Regelbasierte Betriebsstrategien 4.1 Deterministisch 4.1.1 Regeladaption mittels Suchheuristiken 4.1.2 Regeldefinition mittels PMP/ECMS 4.2 Fuzzy-Logik 4.3 Zusammenfassung der Vor- und Nachteile regelbasierter Ansätze 5 Auswahl eines zu implementierenden Strategieansatzes 6 Vorstellung des verwendeten Simulationsmodells 6.1 Betrachtete Fahrzyklen 6.2 Fahrzeugmodell 6.3 Implementierung der ECMS 6.3.1 Korrektur des Kraftstoffverbrauchs bei Ladungsabweichung 6.3.2 Auswahl der Strafkosten für den Gangwechsel und den VM- Betriebszustand 7 Simulation und Auswertung des implementierten Strategieansatzes. 7.1 Erweiterung der ECMS durch die nichtprädiktive Anpassung des Äquivalenzfaktors nach PEI 7.1.1 Auswahl des Skalierungsfaktors a - ohne Anpassung des Referenzwerts (λref = const) 7.1.2 Auswahl der Proportionalverstärkung Kp - Anpassung des Referenzwerts (λref ≠ const) 7.2 Vergleich der ECMS mit einer regelbasierten Betriebsstrategie 8 Zusammenfassung und Ausblick Quellenverzeichnis Anhang / By integrating at least one additional energy converter into the drive train, parallel hybrid vehicles gain an additional degree of freedom compared to conventional vehicles. In addition to the design and efficiency of the individual drive train components, especially the use of this additional degree of freedom is the key responsible to achieve the desired goals in the operation of a hybrid vehicle, such as minimizing fuel consumption and exhaust emissions. Responsible for this are so-called supervisory strategies. In a first step, the present thesis provides an overview of current supervisory control strategies for vehicles with a parallel hybrid architecture and compares selected approaches. In a second step, a promising Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy (ECMS) is chosen and implemented in a MATLAB/Simulink-longitudinal dynamics model. This approach relates on the determination of the equivalence factor which is carried out without the use of prediction data. A comparison of the fuel consumption, obtained for a rule-based supervisory strategy, shows the advantages of the implemented ECMS approach. To consider the different states of charge at the end of the trip, a charge-dependent fuel correction will be presented.:Abbildungsverzeichnis VII Tabellenverzeichnis IX Abkürzungs- und Symbolverzeichnis X 1 Einleitung 1.1 Motivation 1.2 Zielstellung der Arbeit 1.3 Struktur der Arbeit 2 Energiemanagement paralleler Hybridfahrzeugarchitekturen 2.1 Hybridfahrzeuge 2.2 Hybridfahrzeugarchitekturen 2.3 Betriebsstrategien für parallele Hybridfahrzeugarchitekturen 2.3.1 Betriebsstrategie - Begriffsbestimmung und Einordnung in das Energiemanagement 2.3.2 Bewertungskriterien von Betriebsstrategien 2.3.3 Überblick Betriebsstrategien 3 Optimierungsbasierte Betriebsstrategien 3.1 Mathematischer Ansatz 3.1.1 Das parallele HEV als Anwendungsfall 3.1.2 Neben- und Randbedingungen 3.2 Globale optimierungsbasierte Betriebsstrategien 3.2.1 Dynamische Programmierung (DP) 3.2.2 PONTRJAGINsches Maximumsprinzip (PMP) 3.2.3 Approximation der Kennfelder 3.2.4 Suchheuristiken 3.3 Lokale optimierungsbasierte Betriebsstrategien 3.3.1 Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy (ECMS) 3.3.2 Gegenüberstellung ECMS und PMP 3.3.3 Bestimmung des Äquivalenzfaktors 3.4 Zusammenfassung der Vor- und Nachteile optimierungsbasierter Ansätze 4 Regelbasierte Betriebsstrategien 4.1 Deterministisch 4.1.1 Regeladaption mittels Suchheuristiken 4.1.2 Regeldefinition mittels PMP/ECMS 4.2 Fuzzy-Logik 4.3 Zusammenfassung der Vor- und Nachteile regelbasierter Ansätze 5 Auswahl eines zu implementierenden Strategieansatzes 6 Vorstellung des verwendeten Simulationsmodells 6.1 Betrachtete Fahrzyklen 6.2 Fahrzeugmodell 6.3 Implementierung der ECMS 6.3.1 Korrektur des Kraftstoffverbrauchs bei Ladungsabweichung 6.3.2 Auswahl der Strafkosten für den Gangwechsel und den VM- Betriebszustand 7 Simulation und Auswertung des implementierten Strategieansatzes. 7.1 Erweiterung der ECMS durch die nichtprädiktive Anpassung des Äquivalenzfaktors nach PEI 7.1.1 Auswahl des Skalierungsfaktors a - ohne Anpassung des Referenzwerts (λref = const) 7.1.2 Auswahl der Proportionalverstärkung Kp - Anpassung des Referenzwerts (λref ≠ const) 7.2 Vergleich der ECMS mit einer regelbasierten Betriebsstrategie 8 Zusammenfassung und Ausblick Quellenverzeichnis Anhang

Im Zuge der immer größer werdenden Knappheit fossiler Ressourcen und des damit verbundenen Anstiegs des Rohölpreises ergibt sich ein Trend hin zur Elektromobilität. In den nächsten Jahren werden jedoch nur Elektrofahrzeuge mit deutlich eingeschränkter maximaler Reichweite im Vergleich zu Benzin- oder Dieselfahrzeugen produziert werden können. Um den täglichen Umgang des Kunden mit einem Elektrofahrzeug trotzdem möglichst reibungslos zu ermöglichen, wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit eine neuartige Anzeige der verbleibenden Reichweite auf der Navigationskarte entwickelt. Nach detaillierter Analyse vorhandener Ansätze wurde je ein empirisches und ein modellbasiertes Verfahren ausgearbeitet. Die Ansätze wurden systematisch verglichen und zu einem komplett neuartigen, hybriden Ansatz kombiniert. Die auftretenden Verbräuche des Fahrzeugs werden im Kundenbetrieb erfasst, je nach Fahrsituation klassifiziert und für eine Extrapolation in der Zukunft verwendet. Die entwickelte Methodik zur Untersuchung der erreichbaren Genauigkeit ergab ein erzielbares Fehlermaß von durchschnittlich unter 10%. / Due to the prospect of a worldwide shortage of fossil fuels and the correlated increase of prices for crude-oil, a global trend to invest in electric mobility has started. During the next couple of years, electric vehicles will still have restrictions on the maximum distance that can be driven before having the need to recharge the battery. The potential costumers face the so-called „range-anxiety“, the fear to be stranded prior to reaching the destination. In order to provide a safe and easy way of operating such a vehicle, the work conducted in the course of this doctoral thesis led to a new way of displaying the remaining range of the vehicle on a navigation map. After detailed analysis of the state of the art, an empirical- and a model-based solution for calculating the remaining range were developed utilizing predictive map-data from a roadnetwork. After a systematical optimization of the developed solutions, an embedded prototype was developed which captured the driving situation of the vehicle together with the corresponding energy-consumption in order to provide a context-aware interpolation of the remaining range, depending on where the costumer would drive next. A developed methodology of objectively determining the error produced by the system resulted in a mean-deviation of 10% of absolute value.

It is time to phase out fossil fuels and invest our efforts in green energy production through a major restructuring of the energy system. At the same time, more people are acquiring electric vehicles (EVs), thus creating a higher demand of electricity, and solar panels, allowing the consumer to also be a micro-producer. In order to systematically perform these changes, it is important to gain a better knowledge of the current customers as well as be able to make more accurate predictions about their future consumption. Vattenfall Eldistribution (VE) is one of several operators of the electric grid and, as of this day, still produces effect forecasts based on static estimations using the Velander formula. This has been a successful method in the past, however, with the current rate of change and the complexity in the consumption behaviour, it has become more difficult to estimate the aggregated load on the grid. It is also unattainable to cover the future demands by only expanding the grid. This creates the need for optimising the current grid, making more dynamic effect forecast and creating a smart grid. Our purpose is to help VE develop typical load profiles (TLPs), a more dynamic way to estimate peak loads, for private customers in the Uppsala region. VE provided us with time series data regarding the customers' consumption, as well as, attribute data describing the fuse size, heating system, contract type, etc., of these customers. A third dataset was also acquired through the Swedish Transport Agency regarding EV owners. These datasets allowed us to implement the three different parts of this project. The first part involved the creation of Attribute based TLPs with the help of the different attributes found in the VE's database. The goal for this part was to investigate the impact of specific attributes on the TLPs. The second part concerned the development of Behaviour based TLPs by implementing clustering algorithms that groups the customers based on behaviour alone. Thereafter, the distribution of attributes in the different groups was examined, in order to evaluate if there is a connection between the attributes and the consumption patterns identified. The third part studied the effect of EVs on the consumption behaviour. For this part, we implemented both attribute and behaviour based TLPs. The results of the Attribute based TLPs part concluded that fuse size has minimal impact on the TLPs whereas heating system entails a larger variation. In the second part of the project, Behaviour based TLPs, TLPs were successfully created with the help of clustering algorithms. However, no clear linkage between the consumption patterns and the attributes could be determined due to an evident overlap in the attributes between the created clusters. The final part of this project, EV owner based TLPs, verified the hypothesis that EV owners most likely charge their vehicles during the evening and night and established a clear visual increase in the consumption pattern in relation to non EV owners. An overall uncertainty that affects the results of all parts of this project is the accuracy of VE's data attributes and in order to confirm the conclusions of this thesis the degree of accuracy of the attributes should be determined.

<p>The electrification trend affecting off-road vehicles is paving the way toward dedicated electrified hydraulic actuation systems. Although traditional centralized fluid power architectures are still utilized in many applications for low cost, power density, and reliability, nowadays emission policy results in an increasing interest in developing electro-hydraulic actuator (EHA) solutions. EHAs enable non-throttling actuation and energy recuperation during overrunning loads, leading to higher transmission efficiency and lower fuel consumption. These features in energy efficiency make EHAs competitive in meeting emission regulations compared to conventional hydraulic solutions.</p> <p>The key challenge in developing the EHA solution comes from the high cost and space requirements, especially for the adoption of self-contained EHAs in mobile applications. In this study, two architectures for the EHA are proposed, a closed-circuit architecture and an open-circuit one, to determine the most practical and efficient configuration. The most effective open-circuit architecture with distributed concepts is further investigated for implementation, which requires less modification of the mechanical structures and performs more efficiently than the closed-circuit alternative. The proposed EHA is driven by an electro-hydraulic unit (EHU) consisting of a variable-speed electric motor and a fixed-displacement hydraulic pump, which is relatively cost-effective. A novel hydraulic configuration is proposed, which allows the EHA to cover full-speed operating ranges in four quadrants. </p> <p>To verify the EHA design, the behavior of the proposed system should be predicted prior to costly experiments and demonstrations. For this purpose, an integrated simulation model is developed based on the lumped parameter approach in the Amesim environment. The model includes the electric system, the hydraulic system, and the mechanism to be implemented, which are capable of flexible analysis of functionality, efficiency, and thermal performance.</p> <p>In this work, a dedicated test rig for EHA testing is developed. The test rig can help verify EHA performance, test the control algorithm, and diagnose errors before implementing the system on real applications. The experimental results from the test rig also validate the simulation model. An independent load drive of the test rig allows testing all possible  loading conditions of the proposed EHA, thus demonstrating the energy performance in four quadrants. Thermal behavior is investigated with long duty cycles to determine the need for additional cooling equipment. After the validation of the hydraulic configuration, a power electronics setup is added to the test rig, which allows to drive the EHA system with the novel designed EHUs. Validation on the test platform paves the way for implementation in a vehicle. </p> <p>As a final step, the proposed EHA system is implemented in a reference vehicle, a Case New Holland TV380 skid steer loader. A novel designed EHU is adopted to drive the system for technology demonstration. The energy savings capacity of the EHA is investigated in comparison to the baseline measurements of the traditional open-center hydraulic architecture. The impressive savings from the reduction of throttling losses and energy recovery guide the possible commercialization of such EHAs in mobile hydraulic applications. The controller design of the implemented EHA system is investigated with the aim of improving the dynamic performance, e.g., reducing damping oscillation. Basic power management strategies are also studied to integrate EHA with the power train of current hydraulic machines. Regarding future work, based on this research but not within the scope of this study, the proposed EHA system can be adopted with different types of prime movers, such as axial piston machines as the hydraulic part of an EHU. Furthermore, the design approach proposed in this study can help resize the EHA system for other applications with different loading conditions and power requirements, and the energy savings capability can be further investigated. With this, a comprehensive market analysis will be performed for the commercialization of EHA. </p>