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A fourth generation multiple site Ziegler-Natta catalyst was used to synthesize ethylene and propylene homo-and copolymers in the presence of hydrogen. This type of catalysts produce polymers with broader molecular weight distribution (MWD), chemical composition distribution (CCD) and stereoregularity than other coordination polymerization catalysts since it has more than one active site. The ratio of propylene/ethylene was varied to study its effect on polymer microstructure. In addition, by having two different electron donors, namely diisopropyldimethoxysilane (P) and dicyclopentyldimethoxysilane (D), the molecular weight distribution (MWD) and stereospecificity of the synthesized polymers were examined. The polymer samples were characterized using 13C-NMR and high-temperature gel permeation chromatography (GPC). Using the 13C-NMR data, the triad distribution for the copolymers and also the isotactic triad distribution for homo-polymers were calculated. The effects of electron donors on different feed ratios of ethylene and propylene in the synthesis were investigated. Co-polymer produced with D-donors showed higher isospecificity and also higher content of ethylene in the final polymer. In contrast, polymers produced using with P-donor showed lower polydispersity indices (PDI), and had higher contents of propylene in final polymer. In addition, the “Deconvolution method” was applied to GPC data in order to determine the number of sites on the Ziegler-Natta catalyst; which showed that 4 active site types were adequate to explain the molecular weight distributions.

The knowledge of geometry of molecular complexes formed via molecular association in solution through weak interactions is always important to understand the origin of stability and function of an array of molecules, supramolecular assemblies, and macromolecular networks. Simple 1:1 molecular complexes are very useful in this regard as they provide a model to understand both the nature of these interactions and their structural implications. Several weak noncovalent forces from long range (van der Waal’s, electrostatic, induction, dispersion) to short range (charge transfer) govern the geometry, that is, relative orientation of the two molecules in such a complex. On one hand, we find 1:1 electron donor acceptor (EDA) complexes such as naphthalene-tetracyanobenzene, hexamethylbenzene-chloranil etc. which stack parallel or in slipped parallel geometry in their crystals. On the other, benzene dimer has been found to stabilize in T shaped geometry in all its three physical states. In this thesis, I focus on 1:1 EDA complexes in solution. A good volume of literature is available which deals with the optical studies on the formation of such complexes. It has been suggested that the nature of the intermolecular interactions stabilizing these complexes in the gas phase or in their crystals is modified by the presence of solvent-solute interactions in solution thus bringing in difference in the solution geometry. However, the existing experimental techniques, both optical and magnetic, are unable to determine the exact geometries of 1:1 EDA complexes in solution. This opens an opportunity to probe their geometry in solution. The quadratic nonlinearity or first hyperpolarizability (β) of a molecule is a measure of the change in dipole moment (or polarization) in the second order of the applied electrical field and thus has a purely electronic origin. It is a tensorial property and can be resolved in components along the three dimensions. The number of β components and the nonlinear optical anisotropies in a typical donor-acceptor type dipolar molecule, defined as (equation) (where1, 2, 3 axes define the molecular frame, 1 being the direction along the principal axis of symmetry and pointing from the acceptor toward the donor), are determined by the symmetry /structure of the molecule. It has been shown theoretically that the 1:1 EDA complexes possess large hyperpolarizabilities. In the case of pNA dimers calculation revealed that the geometry of the dimer and its symmetry is important for obtaining the correct estimate of β from its tensorial components. Therefore, it should be possible to use the values of tensorial β components to construct the unknown geometry of such complexes. Experimentally macroscopic depolarization ratios (D and D′) in the laboratory fixed frame (XYZ, X being the direction of polarization and Z the direction of propagation of the incident light), are measured from the polarization resolved intensities of second harmonic scattering from molecules in solution using the hyper-Rayleigh scattering technique. The depolarization ratios are correlated to the anisotropy parameters, u and v through a co-ordinate transformation. In this thesis I, have first, characterized the quadratic nonlinear optical property of a variety of 1:1 electron donor acceptor complexes and used the values of u and v obtained from depolarized hyper-Rayleigh scattering to deduce their geometry in solution. Chapter 1 provides an introduction to the 1:1 electron donor acceptor complexes, their relevance to chemistry and biology. It also contains an introduction to nonlinear optical processes in molecules. The objective of the present work and scope of the investigation carried out in this thesis is presented in this chapter. Chapter 2 describes the details of the experimental polarization resolved HRS technique. The geometrical model adopted for the analysis of the HRS data has also been introduced and the method of analysis has been described in detail in this chapter. Chapter 3 presents the measurement of β values of two series of 1:1 EDA complexes of variously substituted methylbenzenes donors with tetrachloro-p-benzoquinone (CHL) and dicyanodichloro-p-benzoquinone (DDQ) acceptors at 1064 nm. In agreement with recent theoretical results we find large first hyperpolarizabilities for these complexes. The β values are greater than that of the typical push-pull molecule p-nitroaniline (pNA). We also find that in general β decreases with decrease in the donor strength. Chapter 4 presents the β values for the two series of EDA complexes of CHL and DDQ acceptors at 1907 nm. The values of β are less in magnitude at 1907 nm than that at 1064 nm which is due to the dispersion effect in β. In Chapter 5 and 6, it is described how depolarized hyper-Rayleigh scattering can be utilized to probe geometries of 1:1 complexes in solution. Chapter 5 concentrates mainly on 1:1 EDA complexes of CHL and DDQ and TCNB (tetracyanobenzene), while chapter 6 contains examples of other 1:1 molecular complexes where the noncovalent interactions are much weaker, such as in benzene-naphthalene, benzene-methoxybenzene, benzene-hexafluorobenzene and benzene-chlorobenzene pairs. We find the geometry of 1:1 EDA complexes in solution in terms of tilt angle (θ) and twist angle (ϕ) between the donor and acceptor pairs. The angle θ varies from 29°-47° for different pairs of EDA complexes, while ϕ varies within 34° and 38°. We find that the geometry of 1:1 EDA complexes in solution is different (twisted and tilted cofacial and twisted ‘V’) from those in the crystalline or gaseous states (cofacial), if known. We find that both benzene-naphthalene and benzene-chlorobenzene pairs assume twisted ‘T’ shape geometry with θ = 82° and 85°, respectively, and φ = 38°, while benzene-hexafluorobenzene assumes a twisted ‘V’ shape. A strong solvent effect is seen in the geometry of the benzene- methoxybenzene complex. The tilt angle is 55° when chloroform is used as a solvent and it is 82° without chloroform. Chapter 7 is the concluding chapter where the main work done in this thesis is summarized and future directions are presented.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Washington, 2003. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 164-177).

M.Sc. / Donor-acceptor (D-A) systems consist of a donor covalently or non-covalently linked to an acceptor. The simplest D–A system consists of a donor linked to an acceptor and is called a dyad system. Photoactive dyad systems are molecular devices designed to perform through the separation of charge separation states and the conversion of solar energy to chemical energy in analogy to photosynthesis.1 These dyad systems consist of a donor which is usually a chromophore and an acceptor. The design of these systems is guided to mimic photo-induced electron transfer (PET) and charge separation (CS), which are fundamental processes of photosynthesis. In nature, photosynthetic units are often built from dyads consisting of pigments like chlorophyll (donors), non–covalently linked to quinones, (acceptors). The donor harvests light energy and transfers the energy to the nearby pigment molecules until it eventually reaches a special region of the chlorophyll macrocycle called the reaction centre where this light energy is then converted to electrochemical energy. Photoactive dyad systems act as artificial photosynthetic models as they reproduce photo–induced electron transfer and charge separation of natural photosynthesis. In this project, dyad systems were made by covalently linking zinc pheophorbide, a modified chlorophyll derivative to double–walled carbon nanotubes (DWCNTs). Zinc pheophorbide acts as the donor and DWCNTs as the acceptors. Chlorophyll was modified by cutting the phytol chain and inserting zinc as the central metal to yield zinc pheophorbide. This derivative is stable against irradiation, has a good range of acceptor wavelength and is also a good light harvester. DWCNTs are one dimensional nanowires with two concentric tubes. They readily accept electrons because they have an extended π electron system. These electrons are then transported efficiently under ballistic conditions. DWCNTs were synthesised by catalytic chemical vapour deposition (CCVD) of methane over Mg0.99Co0.075Mo0.025O catalyst. In dyad system 1, amidated zinc pheophorbide molecules were covalently attached to oxidised DWCNTs in the presence of N–ethyl–N’–(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide hydrochloride (EDC) \ and N–hydroxysuccinnimide (NHS) as a catalysts. Dyad system 2 was synthesized by attaching zinc pheophorbide molecules to amidated DWCNTs using the same catalysts.

A presente pesquisa teve, por principal objetivo, avaliar a viabilidade da desnitrificação autotrófica, empregando sulfeto como doador de elétrons, aplicada a efluentes de reatores anaeróbios tratando esgoto sanitário. Estudos anteriores indicam que o sulfeto presente na fase líquida de efluentes e no biogás pode ser utilizado como doador de elétrons para a desnitrificação. Porém, há poucas informações sobre as interações entre os ciclos do carbono, nitrogênio e enxofre neste processo que permitam a utilização prática dos fundamentos já conhecidos sobre a desnitrificação na presença de sulfeto. Neste trabalho, realizaram-se ensaios de desnitrificação na presença de sulfeto, a fim de se avaliar o potencial de uso desse composto como doador de elétrons. Inicialmente, foram utilizados frascos de 1 L contendo biomassa imobilizada em espuma de poliuretano, alimentados com meio sintético nitrificado contendo sulfeto como doador e nitrito e nitrato como receptores de elétrons. Variou-se a concentração de sulfeto, obtendo-se diferentes relações N/S. Constatou-se desnitrificação completa de ambos os receptores estudados; entretanto, isto só ocorreu com estabilidade para relações N/S inferiores à relação estequiométrica baseada nas reações químicas correspondentes, isto é, quando foi aplicado sulfeto em excesso. Os resultados mostraram que a oxidação total ou parcial dos compostos de enxofre no processo depende da relação N/S, e a velocidade de consumo de nitrato foi maior que a de nitrito. Posteriormente, realizaram-se novos ensaios semelhantes ao anterior, porém, a alimentação consistiu na mistura do efluente sintético nitrificado a efluente de reator anaeróbio tratando água residuária de abatedouro de aves, e o único receptor de elétrons aplicado foi nitrato. Neste caso, foi constatada desnitrificação completa na relação N/S correspondente à estequiometria relativa a sulfeto e nitrato. A cinética de remoção de nitrogênio seguiu modelo de decaimento exponencial de primeira ordem; entretanto, houve limitação à transferência de massa intraparticular e na fase líquida, fato que caracterizou os modelos ajustados como sendo de primeira ordem. As velocidades específicas aparentes obtidas na primeira fase foram próximas de 15 mgN/gSSV.h, tanto com a aplicação de nitrato, quanto de nitrito como receptores de elétrons. Na segunda fase, a máxima velocidade específica aparente de remoção de nitrato foi da ordem de 6 mgN/gSSV.h. / The feasibility of autotrophic denitrification of effluent from anaerobic reactor treating domestic sewage using sulfide as electron donor was evaluated. Prior researches reveals sulfide into liquid phase of effluents and biogas can be utilized as electron donor for denitrification. However, information about the interaction between carbon, nitrogen and sulfur cycles in this process are few to permit practice utilization of known fundamentals about denitrification in presence of sulfide. In this work, laboratory tests of denitrification in the presence of sulfide were carried out to evaluate potential employ of this compound as electron donor. Initially, 1 L flasks with immobilized biomass in polyurethane foam was fed with synthetic nitrified wastewater containing sulfide as donor and nitrite e nitrate as electron acceptors. Sulfide concentration was diversified to obtain different N/S ratios. Complete denitrification occurred with nitrate and nitrite; nevertheless, it was observed in a stable way only for N/S ratios smaller than stoichiometric rate based in the corresponding chemistry reactions, that is, when applied excess of sulfide. The results showed that total or partial sulfur compounds oxidation depends on N/S ratio and the nitrate removal rate was bigger than nitrite removal rate. Afterward, new assays were carried out in the same way. However, the flasks were fed with synthetic nitrified wastewater mixed to effluent from anaerobic reactor treating bird slaughterhouse wastewater, and nitrate was the only electron acceptor applied. In this case, complete denitrification was evidenced for stoichiometric N/S ratio relating to sulfide and nitrate. Nitrogen removal kinetic followed exponential decay model of first order; however, this behavior was due to mass transfer limitation in the liquid phase and intraparticular. Apparent specific rates of nitrogen removal found in the first phase were nearby 15 mgN/gSSV.h, with nitrate as well as nitrite application. In the second phase, maxima apparent specific rate of nitrogen removal in nitrate form was about 6 mgN/gSSV.h.

Made available in DSpace on 2017-07-24T19:38:09Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Tiago Branco Brecher.pdf: 1790856 bytes, checksum: f4d811ea50a13d94dfcb1d13c6444f12 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-04-12 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / In this paper we address the development of synthetic routes to four organic structures called dyads, which are compounds formed by an electron donating group covalently attached to an electron acceptor group. What sparked your interest in synthesizing these molecules was the potential of being applied in organic photovoltaic devices, because this type of structure has the ability of promoting a charge separation of the exciton generated after light absorption. This happens due to the proximity between the donor and acceptor species. In this work we have chosen the group derived from naphthalamide as electron donor, which has features like thermal and photochemical stabilities and conjugated double bonds, which cause the electrons p remain delocalized, facilitating the release of electrons when they receive energy. As electron acceptor it was chosen groups derived from fluorene,thiophene and benzonitrile containing both nitrile groups (strongly electron with drawing electron), which have characteristics of electron acceptors. The synthetic route of the NCT dyad was composed of two stages. In the first step of the synthesis of this dyad it was added a saturated chain of six carbon, proven by the NMR data with the appearance of the signs of the carbons of the chain in the region 1.5 to 3 ppm, so the next step was performed by the reaction of this product with the electron acceptor, the thiophene. In the synthetic route of the NCF it was performed three steps of the five motions initially, the first step being the same as performed for the preceding dyad. In the next step the objective of the reaction was the addition of iodine to fluorene derivative, which was confirmed by the appearance of bands of C-I bond in the IR spectra. The third and final stage of the dyad NCF had the goal of replacing the iodines by cyano group. The results show that this step it actually occurred mainly because of the nitrile band in the IR spectrum. The dyad NCB had only one step, in which the derivative naphthalamide was linked to the benzonitrile by a SN2 reaction, which was confirmed by NMR analysis that shows all the characteristic signs of the product formed. The dyad NT was the only one that did not have the separation between the donor and acceptor of electrons by a aliphatic carbon chain. Its synthesis aimed to connect the two reagents directly in only one step. All synthesized products were characterized by IR spectroscopy and 1H NMR, and the determination of their melting point, with these characterization it was concluded that only the dyad NCB was successfully obtained. / Neste trabalho abordamos o desenvolvimento de rotas sintéticas para quatro estruturas orgânicas chamadas díades, que são compostos formados por um grupo doador de elétrons conectado covalentemente a um grupor aceitador de elétrons. O que despertou o interesse em sintetizar estas moléculas foi o potencial de serem aplicadas em dispositivos fotovoltaicos orgânicos, pois esse tipo de estrutura tem como propriedade principal a capacidade de, após a absorção de luz, promover uma separação de carga do éxciton gerado devido à proximidade entre a espécie doadora e aceitadora de elétrons. Nesse trabalho foi escolhido o grupo derivado da naftalamida como doador de elétrons, que tem como características estabilidades térmica e fotoquímica e duplas ligações conjugadas, que fazem com que os elétrons p fiquem delocalizados, facilitando a liberação de elétrons quando estes recebem energia. Como aceitador de elétrons foram escolhidos grupos derivados do fluoreno,tiofeno e da benzonitrila ambos contendo grupos nitrilas (fortemente elétron-retirador de elétrons), os quais apresentam características aceptoras de elétrons. A rota sintética da díade NCT foi composta de duas etapas. Na primeira etapa de síntese desta díade foi adicionada uma cadeia saturada de seis carbonos, comprovada pelos dados de RMN com o surgimento dos sinais dos carbonos da cadeia na região de 1,5 a 3 ppm, para que na próxima etapa fosse realizada a reação deste produto com o aceitador de elétrons, o tiofeno. Na rota sintética da díade NCF foram realizadas três etapas das cinco propostas inicialmente, sendo a primeira etapa a mesma da realizada para a díade anterior. Na etapa seguinte o objetivo da reação foi à adição do iodo ao derivado fluoreno, a qual foi comprovada pelo surgimento das bandas da ligação C-I no espectro de IV. A terceira e última etapa da díade NCF teve o objetivo da substituir os iodos pelo grupo ciano. Os resultados desta etapa mostram que isto realmente ocorreu principalmente pelo surgimento da banda da nitrila no espectro de IV. A díade NCB teve somente uma etapa, na qual o derivado da naftalamida se uniu ao da benzonitrila por uma reação SN2, que foi confirmado pela analise de RMN que apresenta todos os sinais característicos do produto formado. A díade NT é a única que não possui a separação entre o doador e o aceitador de elétrons por uma cadeia de carbonos. Sua síntese teve como objetivo ligar os dois reagentes diretamente em somente uma etapa. Todos os produtos sintetizados foram caracterizados pelas espectroscopias de IV e de RMN de 1H,além da determinação de seu ponto de fusão, com estas análises foi concluído que somente a díade NCB foi sintentizada.

A remoção de nitrogênio acoplada à oxidação de sulfeto pode ser uma opção adequada para o pós-tratamento de efluentes de reatores anaeróbios, os quais contêm nitrogênio amoniacal, que deve ser nitrificado, e sulfeto, que poderia ser utilizado como doador de elétrons endógeno para a desnitrificação autotrófica. Com base nessa constatação, esta pesquisa propôs a aplicação da nitrificação e desnitrificação autotrófica acoplada à oxidação de sulfeto, em um único reator, para a remoção de nitrogênio de efluentes de reatores anaeróbios tratando esgoto sanitário. Visto que existem lacunas na literatura referente ao processo desnitrificante autotrófico citado, as bases teóricas para a determinação das condições operacionais partiram da caracterização cinética e de aspectos fundamentais da desnitrificação autotrófica com uso de sulfeto como doador de elétrons. Numa primeira etapa, avaliou-se o efeito da concentração de sulfeto na desnitrificação, com uso de nitrato e nitrito como receptores de elétrons, em reatores verticais de leito fixo. Os resultados revelaram que compostos intermediários de enxofre foram principalmente formados quando se aplicou excesso de sulfeto, fato que foi mais evidente com o uso de nitrato. Evidências visuais sugeriram que enxofre elementar foi o principal intermediário formado, o qual também estava sendo utilizado quando aplicadas concentrações estequiométricas de sulfeto relativas a nitrato/nitrito. De modo geral, a desnitrificação autotrófica não foi afetada pela desnitrificação heterotrófica residual via atividade endogênica. Numa segunda etapa, determinou-se a cinética intrínseca da desnitrificação autotrófica via nitrato e nitrito com uso de diferentes concentrações de sulfeto em reatores diferenciais de leito fixo. Este bioprocesso pôde ser descrito por modelo cinético de ordem ½ para biofilmes. As constantes cinéticas variaram entre 0,425-0,658 mg N1/2 / L1/2 h para desnitrificação via nitrito e entre 0,190-0,609 mg N1/2 / L1/2 h para desnitrificação via nitrato. Neste último, o menor valor foi devido ao uso de elétrons doados a partir de compostos intermediários de enxofre formados. Numa terceira etapa, utilizou-se um reator de leito fixo operado em batelada alimentada seqüencial, com ciclos de 8 horas, submetido à aeração intermitente e empregando a desnitrificação autotrófica com uso de sulfeto presente no efluente sanitário, pré-tratado anaerobiamente, como doador de elétrons. O prévio estabelecimento da nitrificação com posterior aplicação de baixas concentrações de sulfeto foi a melhor estratégia de partida do reator. A alimentação em batelada alimentada com aplicação de sulfeto em excesso apenas nos períodos anóxicos foi a melhor estratégia de alimentação, proporcionando eficiência média de 85,7% e 53,0% para nitrificação e desnitrificação, respectivamente. O acúmulo de nitrito foi observado após aplicação de carga de choque de sulfeto, que inibiu as bactérias oxidadoras de nitrito. No entanto, houve dificuldade em se estabelecer a desnitrificação via nitrito em função da toxicidade deste composto aos organismos desnitrificantes instalados no reator. A baixa eficiência global de remoção de nitrogênio e algumas restrições operacionais indicaram que a desnitrificação autotrófica usando sulfeto em um único reator operado em bateladas seqüenciais não foi adequada para a proposta desta pesquisa. / Nitrogen removal coupled with sulfide oxidation may be suitable for the post treatment of effluents from anaerobic reactors. These effluents contain ammonium, which must be nitrified, and sulfide, which could be used as an endogenous electron donor for autotrophic denitrification. Since there are gaps in literature regarding the mentioned autotrophic denitrifying process, the theoretical basis for determination of operating conditions came from the characterization of kinetics and fundamentals aspects of autotrophic denitrification using sulfide as electron donor. In a first step, the effect of sulfide concentration on this bioprocess using nitrate and nitrite as electron acceptors in vertical fixed-bed reactors was evaluated. The results showed that intermediary sulfur compounds were mainly produced when excess of electron donor was applied, which was more evident when nitrate was used. Visual evidences suggested that elemental sulfur was the intermediary compound produced. There was also evidence that the elemental sulfur previously formed was being used when sulfide was applied in stoichiometric concentration relative to nitrate/nitrite. For all conditions assayed, autotrophic denitrification was not affected by residual heterotrophic denitrification via endogenic activity, occurring as a minor additional nitrogen removal process. In a second step, the intrinsic kinetics of sulfide-oxidizing autotrophic denitrification via nitrate and nitrite in systems containing attached cells was determined. Differential reactors were fed with nitrified synthetic domestic sewage and different sulfide concentrations. This bioprocess could be described by a half-order kinetic model for biofilms. The half-order kinetic coefficients ranged from 0.425 to 0.658 mg N1/2 / L1/2 h for denitrification via nitrite and from 0.190 to 0.609 mg N1/2 / L1/2 h for denitrification via nitrate. In this latter, the lower value was due to the use of electrons donated from intermediary sulfur compounds formed. In a third step, a sequencing fed-batch biofilm reactor of 8-h cycles was operated under intermittent aeration, applying autotrophic denitrification using sulfide present in the sanitary effluent, anaerobically pre-treated, as electron donor. The effect of the start-up period and the feeding strategy were evaluated. The previous establishment of nitrification process with subsequent application of sulfide in low concentrations was the best start-up strategy. The fed-batch mode with sulfide application in excess only in the anoxic periods was the best feeding strategy, providing average efficiencies of 85.7% and 53.0% for nitrification and denitrification, respectively. Nitrite accumulation was observed after application of shock loading of sulfide, which inhibited nitrite-oxidizing bacteria. However, it was difficult to establish denitrification via nitrite due to the toxicity of this compound to denitrifying organisms developed inside the reactor. The low overall efficiency of nitrogen removal and some operational constraints indicated that autotrophic denitrification using sulfide in a single sequencing fed-batch reactor was not suitable for the purpose of this research.

A remoção de nitrogênio é um aspecto importante do tratamento de águas residuárias, visto que este nutriente causa diversos inconvenientes, com consequentes danos à saúde humana e ao meio ambiente. A forma mais utilizada para a remoção biológica de nitrogênio de águas residuárias é a nitrificação autotrófica seguida de desnitrificação heterotrófica. Esta última etapa necessita de doadores de elétrons orgânicos, provenientes de fontes endógenas ou exógenas. Isto pode encarecer os sistemas de tratamento que utilizam reatores anaeróbios como primeira unidade de tratamento biológico, já que os efluentes destes não possuem matéria orgânica prontamente degradável, exigindo a adição de fontes exógenas de doadores de elétrons. Neste sentido, a desnitrificação autotrófica usando compostos reduzidos de enxofre como doadores de elétrons mostra-se interessante, já que sulfetos são comumente encontrados em efluentes anaeróbios. O objetivo deste projeto de pesquisa é a avaliação da desnitrificação autotrófica usando sulfeto como doador de elétrons para remoção de nitrogênio de efluentes de reatores anaeróbios tratando esgoto sanitário. Para atingir esse objetivo, foram realizados estudos exploratórios, de viabilidade e aplicabilidade do processo. Na primeira etapa, foram operados reatores em batelada para caracterização cinética, operacional e microbiológica do processo. Na segunda etapa, utilizou-se sistema de reatores contínuos em escala de bancada para remoção de nitrogênio de esgoto sanitário sintético. Por fim, na terceira etapa foi operado sistema piloto com nova configuração para tratamento secundário e terciário de esgoto sanitário real. A ocorrência da desnitrificação autotrófica foi detectada nas duas primeiras etapas, e houve indícios de sua presença na terceira etapa da pesquisa. Na primeira etapa, nitrato e nitrito foram aplicados com sucesso como receptores de elétrons, e o processo manteve-se estável apenas quando a relação \'NO IND.X\'POT.-\'/\'S POT.2-\' apresentou valores menores do que a estequiométrica. Modelos cinéticos de ordem zero foram os que melhor se ajustaram aos dados de consumo dos receptores de elétrons, e os parâmetro máximos obtidos foram 7,05 e 5,02 mg N/h.gSSV, para nitrato e nitrito respectivamente. Análises filogenéticas revelaram a presença de organismos semelhantes a Thiobacillus denitrificans, bactéria desnitrificante quimiolitotrófica usualmente associada ao processo. Na segunda e terceira etapas, foi possível a remoção global de nitrogênio de, em média, 40% apenas com doadores de elétrons endógenos, através da nitrificação de 40 a 60% da vazão total e posterior mistura com a fração não-nitrificada. A perda de sulfeto nos reservatórios intermediários do sistema de reatores da segunda etapa foi considerada um obstáculo ao processo, que foi solucionado com a nova configuração proposta na terceira etapa e aplicada em escala piloto. Embora a gama variada de processos possíveis em seu interior não tenha sido completamente elucidada, o sistema piloto promoveu tratamento secundário e terciário de esgoto sanitário, com remoção de nitrogênio e atendimento aos padrões de emissão deste parâmetro. Os resultados obtidos na pesquisa mostraram que o processo é versátil e pode coexistir com outros processos, apresentando viabilidade e potencial no tratamento de efluentes de reatores anaeróbios utilizados no tratamento de esgotos sanitários. / Nitrogen removal is an important aspect of wastewater treatment, for this nutrient causes several issues, with damages to human health and to the environment. The most used technique for biological nitrogen removal from wastewaters is autotrophic nitrification followed by heterotrophic denitrification. The latter needs organic electron donors from endogenous or exogenous sources, which can increase treatment costs for plants that rely on anaerobic reactors as their first biological unit, since their effluents do not have enough readily biodegradable organic matter, demanding the addition of exogenous sources of electron donors. In this way, autotrophic denitrification using reduced sulfur compounds as electron donors could be an interesting alternative, for sulfides are usually present in anaerobically pre-treated effluents. The aim of this research is to evaluate autotrophic denitrification using sulfide as electron donor for nitrogen removal from anaerobically pre-treated domestic sewage. For this, exploratory, viability and applicability studies of the process were performed. In the first part of the experiments, batch assays were conducted for kinetic, operational and microbiological characterization of the process. In the second part, a bench-scale system composed of three continuous reactors was used to remove nitrogen from synthetic domestic sewage. And, finally, in the third part a pilot-scale system presenting a new configuration was operated for secondary and tertiary treatment of real domestic sewage. Autotrophic denitrification was detected in the first two parts, and there were evidences of its presence in the third part of the research. In the first part, nitrate and nitrite were applied successfully as electron acceptors, and the process remained stable only when the \'NO IND.X\'POT.-\'/\'S POT.2-\' ratio was lower than the predicted by stoichiometry. Zero-order kinetic models were the ones that best adjusted to the electron acceptors consumption data, and the maximum obtained parameters were 7.05 and 5.02 mg N/h.gVSS, for nitrate and nitrite respectively. Phylogenetic analyses indicated the presence of organisms similar to Thiobacillus denitrificans, a chemolithotrophic denitrifying bacterium usually associated to the process. In the second and third parts, an average global nitrogen removal of 40% could be achieved using endogenous electron donors only, by nitrifying 40 to 60% of the total flow and later mixing it with the remaining non-nitrified fraction. Sulfide loss in the intermediary tanks of the reactors system operated in the second part was considered an obstacle to the process, which was solved with the new pilot-scale configuration proposed in the third part of the research. Although the wide range of possible processes in its interior was not fully understood, the pilot-scale system promoted secondary and tertiary treatment of domestic sewage, removing nitrogen and obeying the emission standards for this parameter. The results obtained in this research indicated that the process is versatile and can coexist with other processes, being thus viable and presenting potential in the treatment of anaerobically pre-treated domestic sewage.

Under the electric dipole approximation, second harmonic of the incident light is scattered by a collection of randomly oriented molecular dipoles in solution due to instantaneous orientational fluctuation which is directional. If two such dipoles are correlated in space through intermolecular or other interactions, the intensity of the second harmonic scattered light (SHSL) will be related to the extent of such interactions. If two dipoles are arranged in a particular geometry by design, the geometry will determine the intensity of the SHSL. If a molecule has no dipole moment, the intensity of the SHSL will be less and is only allowed by higher order electric multipoles. If two such zero-dipole molecules interact with each other and transfer some amount of electronic charge from one to the other, the induced dipole moment will give rise to an enhanced SHSL. However, along with the direction of the dipole moment from the donor to the acceptor, the actual geometry of such molecular dimer/complex should also play an important role to determine the nature of the SHSL response. If all the isotropic nonzero components of first hyperpolarizability (β) are taken into account, from the measurement of β and related quantities such as depolarization ratios, in solution it should be possible to derive information about the geometry of the dimer/complex. This is precisely the motivation behind this thesis. Chapter 1 gives a brief introduction of 1:1 charge transfer (CT) complexes between a donor and an acceptor and their importance in chemistry. It also contains an introduction to nonlinear optics, various spectroscopic techniques to characterize CT complexes, etc. The motivation of extracting the geometry of such complexes from hyper-Rayleigh scattering (HRS) measurements in solution is presented in this chapter. In Chapter 2, all the experimental details of the unpolarized and polarization resolved HRS measurements at various excitation wavelengths have been described. Generation of infrared wavelengths (1543 nm and 1907 nm) using stimulated Raman scattering in gases have also been discussed. In Chapter 3, the first hyperpolarizability (βHRS) for two series of 1:1 molecular complexes between methyl substituted benzene donors with tetrachloro-p-benzoquinone (CHL) and dicyanodichloro-p-benzoquinone (DDQ) acceptors in solution at 1543 nm have been presented. Enhancement of βHRS due to charge transfer from the donor to the acceptor molecule which was predicted theoretically has been verified. Using linearly (electric field vector along X direction) and circularly polarized incident light, respectively, two macroscopic depolarization ratios D = I2ω,X,X/I2ω,Z,X and D' = I2ω,X,C/I2ω,Z,C in the laboratory fixed XYZ frame by detecting the SHSL in a polarization resolved fashion have been measured. The experimentally obtained first hyperpolarizability (βHRS), D and D' values, are then matched with the theoretically calculated values from single and double configuration interaction calculations using the Zerner’s intermediate neglect of differential overlap and the self-consistent reaction field (ZINDO–SDCI– SCRF) approach by adjusting the geometrical parameters. It has been found that in most of the CT complexes studied here, there exists a significant twist in the equilibrium geometry at room temperature which is not a simple slipped parallel geometry as was believed. In chapter 4, the βHRS, D and D' values of 1:1 pyridine (PY)-chloranil (CHL) complex at 1064 nm have been described. Previous theoretical studies have shown that there is a tilt angle of 77.9 degree in the gas phase PY-CHL complex. In this chapter, this prediction about the geometry of 1:1 PY-CHL complex has been probed. The experimentally found βHRS, D and D' are matched well with theoretically calculated values, using ZINDO–SDCI–SCRF, for a cofacial geometry of PY-CHL complex in solution indicating that the solution geometry is different from the gas phase geometry. In Chapter 5, the βHRS, D and D' for a series of 1:1 complexes of tropyliumtetrafluoroborate and methyl-substituted benzenes in solution at 1064 nm have been reported. The measured D and D' values vary from 1.36 to 1.46 and 1.62 to 1.72, respectively and are much lower than the values expected from a typical sandwich or a T-shaped geometry. The lowering in D and D' indicates that these complexes have higher symmetry than C2v. The value of D close to 1.5 indicates there is a significant octupolar contribution in such complexes. In order to probe it further, βHRS, D and D' were computed using the ZINDO-SDCI-SCRF technique in the presence of BF4-anion. By arranging the three BF4-ions in a C3 symmetry around the complex in such a way that electrical neutrality is maintained, the computed values are brought to agreement with experiments. This unprecedented influence of the anion on the HRS, D and D' values of these complexes are discussed in this chapter. In Chapter 6, the effect of dipolar interactions, within a multichromophoric system, on the second order nonlinear optical properties have been studied. It has been found that the βHRS response of the multichromophoric system is always larger than expected for uncorrelated chromophores demonstrating that the dipole moment of individual chromophores are not merely additive within the multichromophoric system but contribute cooperatively to the SHSL signal. Also the relative orientation and nature of the chromophores and the angle of interaction between them alter the HRS values. Chapter 7 is the concluding chapter in which all the work done in the thesis has been summarized and future direction has been proposed.