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This thesis consists of an analysis of electronic money (e-money), e-money’s privacy policies and relevant privacy laws. The value of information and the development of technology enhance the risk of privacy violations in the information era. Consumer privacy interests with respect to e-money are governed in part by the Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act (PIPEDA) in Canada and by the European Union’s Data Protection Directive. The analysis is directed at whether the privacy policies of three kinds of e-money – Octopus Card, PayPal and MasterCard – comply with the spirit and letter of these laws. In light of technology change, the laws should be interpreted to apply broadly to protect privacy interests. Enhanced privacy protection may in fact lead to greater adoption of e-money by consumers. / Thesis (Master, Law) -- Queen's University, 2011-09-27 17:53:30.503

Elektroniniai pinigai: teisinio reglamentavimo problemos Europos Sąjungos mastu e-pinigai išsamiai pradėti reglamentuoti Direktyvoje 2000/46/EB, kuria buvo apibrėžta e-pinigų sąvoka ir nustatyti pagrindiniai reikalavimai įstaigų veiklai. Nepaisant ambicingo Komisijos siekio imtis išankstinio reglamentavimo, kad e-pinigai galėtų paskatinti elektroninę prekybą bei inovacijas ir ateityje pakeisti grynuosius pinigus, Direktyva 2000/46/EB turėjo daug trūkumų, todėl laikomasi nuomonės, kad, užuot paskatinusi, stabdė rinkos augimą. Direktyvoje 2000/46/EB nustatyti abejotini įstaigų veiklai taikomi reikalavimai ir jų tapatinimas su kredito įstaigomis, nors taikomi palyginti švelnesni reikalavimai. Dėl įtvirtintos e-pinigų sąvokos Direktyva 2000/46/EB kritikuojama nuo pat jos priėmimo, nes, užuot užtikrinusi tinkamą teisinį aiškumą, sukėlė priešingą efektą. Dėl sąvokoje įtvirtintų reikalavimų, kaip antai draudimas leisti e-pinigus su nuolaida, nepakankamo techninio sąvokos neutralumo ir kt., Direktyvos 2000/46/EB reguliavimo apimtis buvo palanki interpretacijoms. Rengiant Direktyvą 2009/110/EB atsižvelgta į valstybių narių pastabas ir kritiką, todėl padaryta daug reikšmingų reglamentavimo pakeitimų, tačiau dar anksti sakyti, kad e-pinigų reglamentavimo problemos išspręstos. Direktyvoje 2009/110/EB atskirtas e-pinigų įstaigų statusas nuo kredito įstaigų, nustatant joms mažesnius ir proporcingesnius, rinkos sąlygas atitinkančius reikalavimus, palyginti su Direktyva 2000/46/EB... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / Electronic Money: Issues of Legal Regulation Consistent legal regulation of e-money in European Union has started by adoption of the Directive 2000/46/EB - it was the first legal act which has set the definition and basic rules on e-money institutions. Despite the fact that Commission had seen e-money as potential to encourage electronic commerce and innovation in EU and probably the way to cashless society, the first e-money Directive was far from reaching these objectives and instead of fostering innovation and competition, hindered it. The Directive 2000/46/EB had created an inconsistent legal regime for e-money institutions: prudential rules were still too restrictive and the idea of considering e-money institutions as a subcategory of credit institution was highly doubtful. The definition of e-money received a lot of criticism, because it had created legal uncertainty, Directive’s scope of applicability was unclear and open to interpretations. The main shortcomings were recognized and the new e-money Directive 2009/110/EB has made significant changes in legal regulation of e-money. First of all, e-money institutions are not considered as a subcategory of credit institutions anymore. The concept of e-money is now more closely linked to payment services rather than credit institutions. As a result, more proportionate prudential requirements are set: lover capital requirements, possibility to deploy other activities, etc. Furthermore, the Directive 2009/110/EB has... [to full text]

La siguiente investigación pretende analizar la relevancia del dinero electrónico y cómo este afecta a los niveles de inclusión financiera en el Perú y en Colombia para un periodo de tiempo del 2013 al 2017. En el caso peruano, se comprobó una relación positiva de ambas variables, esto fue comprobado por medio de una regresión de Mínimos Cuadrados Ordinarios. Para el caso colombiano, se pudo observar una relación también positiva, pero mucho más fuerte entre estas variables. En este caso, se utilizó el modelo de Mínimos Cuadrados Generalizados con la Matriz Newey-West. / The following research aims to analyze the relevance of electronic money and how it affects financial inclusion in Peru and Colombia, between the period from 2013 to 2017. In the case of Peru, a positive relationship of both variables was verified, by means of a regression of Ordinary Minimum Squares. In the case of Colombia, a positive relationship was also observed, but much stronger among these variables. In this case, the Generalized Minimum Square model with the Newey-West Matrix was used. / Trabajo de investigación

This research first defines money and lists its functions and properties. Among these properties, the anonymity and off-line capability of money are pointed out. Then the history of money is briefly discussed, to show that money has evolved similarly to the Lamarckian evolution of species. The examination of the history of money helps us justify why electronic money is necessary, and to point out that money will continuously evolve towards Pure Money. The definition of electronic money conducted afterwards, draws the lines within which the model will be proposed. The proposed model is formally constructed and evaluated accordingly with the use of micropayment evaluation frameworks. The model is a hardware based model considering as baseline smart cards with secure co-processors, and allows transactions with cross-challenging. The model is evaluated with respect to technologic, social and economic dimensions, and taking into account the associated computational and storage costs.

Sparti elektroninės komercijos plėtra ir augimas natūraliai sąlygojo modernių, online aplinkai pritaikytų atsiskaitymo, mokėjimo sistemų atsiradimą. Itin svarbu tai, kad technologijų tobulėjimo pasėkoje ne tik eksponentiškai išaugo perduodamos informacijos kiekis, tačiau pakito pačios informacijos prigimtis – ji pati savaime, per se, tapo ekonominę vertę turinčiu objektu. Vartotojų noras saugiai atsiskaityti internete įtakojo, kad „online“ aplinkoje mažėja naudojimas tokių tradicinių atsiskaitymo priemonių kaip mokėjimo kortelės. Interneto vartotojai vis rečiau pasitiki šiuo mokėjimo įrankiu, kadangi vartotojai, pateikdami pardavėjui savo mokėjimo kortelės duomenis, susiduria su neteisėta šių duomenų panaudojimo rizika. Šiame darbe pateikiamas siūlomas dalinai prijungties režime veikiančios elektroninių pinigų cirkuliacijos sistemos, skirtos mažiems ir vidutiniams mokėjimams, modelis, besiremiantis sukurta Payword mikromokėjimų sistemos koncepcija. / Fast developing and growing of e-commerce determined the coming of modern payment systems. Intention of users to pay safely on the internet impacted the decrease of use of traditional payment system such as credit cards. It’s started to look for and design alternative ways of payment, such as smart cards systems or systems using software for saving monetary value. Traditional payment systems currently used by most e-commerce sites are not suitable for high volume, tiny valued transactions. There is a need of payment system that is cost effective, secure and easy to use. The purpose of this work is to propose a model of semi-online electronic money circulation system for small and average payments, which is based on a concept of R. Rivest and A. Shamir created micropayment system called Payword. The proposed model’s architecture and protocol are explained in detail. To increase performance of the system there was done a research to find out which hash algorithm and electronic signature algorithm is most suitable for the proposed model.

A lo largo de la historia de la humanidad, el dinero ha tomado distintas formas, valores y alcances geopolíticos, ha llegado a situarse como la principal herramienta para engrandecer o destruir naciones. Hoy en día, muchas de las transacciones ya no son, necesariamente, en efectivo; una gran mayoría realiza pagos con dinero electrónico, a través de los aplicativos; y existe también otro grupo de usuarios que utiliza las criptomonedas para hacer sus operaciones. Estas últimas han llamado poderosamente la atención de académicos, financistas y público en general, pues representa un fenómeno de rápido crecimiento. Las criptomonedas, entonces, han respondido a la demanda insatisfecha de usuarios que encuentran grandes barreras en canales tradicionales como, por ejemplo, poca cobertura de las entidades financieras, demoras en las transacciones internacionales, filtración de información personal, exposición a hurtos, entre otros. Por estos motivos, las personas están dispuestas a aceptar nuevas formas de dinero que incorporen tecnología en su funcionamiento y uso, y que acabe con las barreras que presenta el sistema financiero conservador. Sin embargo, aparentemente, para algunos autores, no todas son ventajas en las criptomonedas, sino que presentan algunas características adversas que se califican como nocivas por determinadas fuentes, los bancos centrales principalmente. Esto se ha convertido en tema de discusión e investigación por parte de los gobiernos, que buscan la manera de regular este dinero intangible sobre el cual actualmente no tienen control. En este Paper se analiza, de acuerdo a lo expresado por distintos autores, si las criptomonedas deben ser consideradas dinero. / As has happened throughout the history of humanity, money has taken different forms, values and geopolitical domains, becoming the main tool to magnify or destroy nations. Many of the daily transactions are no longer necessarily in cash; a great majority makes payments with electronic money through the applications; and there is also another group of people who use cryptocurrencies to do their financial operations. The latter have attracted the attention of academics, financiers and the audiences in a powerful way, as it represents a fast growth phenomenon. The cryptocurrencies have responded to the dissatisfied users who find great barriers in traditional channels such as: poor coverage of financial institutions, delays in international transactions, filtering of personal information, exposure to thefts, among others. For these reasons, people are willing to accept new forms of money that incorporate technology in its operation and use, and to break down the barriers that the conservative financial systems has. But, apparently for some authors, not all are advantages when it comes to cryptocurrencies, these might have some adverse characteristics that are qualified as harmful by certain sources, mainly Central Banks. This has become a topic of discussion and research by governments, who seek ways to regulate this intangible money that they currently have no control over. In this Paper we analyze, according to what different authors has been expressed about whether cryptocurrencies should be considered money. / Trabajo de Suficiencia Profesional

Šiuolaikinis pasaulis sukuria vartotojams naujas priemones – galimybę gauti virtualiame pasaulyje visas įsivaizduojamas paslaugas. Siekiant tokias paslaugas padaryti prieinamesnes, supaprastinti pirkimo/pardavimo procedūras kuriamos įvairios elektroninių pinigų formos. „elektroniniai pinigai – tai pinigų vertė, išreikšta kaip pretenzija emitentui: kuri yra saugoma elektroninėse laikmenose; kuri leidžiama gavus lėšas, kurių suma yra ne mažesnės vertės už išleistą pinigų vertę; kurią įmonės, kurios nėra emitentas, priima kaip mokėjimų priemonę“. Darytina svari prielaida, kad ši pinigų rūšis taps pagrindinėmis valiutomis ir atsiskaitymo priemonėmis. Valstybės jau dabar bando perimti elektroninių pinigų kontrolę, tačiau taikomi kontrolės režimai leidžia kompanijoms kurti iš esmės savo “virtualias valstybes“, siekiama savo vartotojus išlaikyti, pasiūlyti jiems geresnes sąlygas, o kartu užtikrinti jų lojalumą, pradedamos kurti savotiškos simbolines struktūras, taip įtvirtindamos naujas vertybes. Dabartiniame pasaulyje yra kompanijų siūlančių naudotis jų sukurtais elektroniniais pinigais, pirkti jų sukurtose virtualiuose parduotuvėse, baisiausia tai, kad kompanijos atstovauja skirtingas ideologijas, kuria savo stilius taip patraukdami vartotoją. Tokį pasaulį galima sutapatinti su į decentralizuotu pasauliu, kur atskiros kompanijos kaip valstybės turi savo pinigus, savo simbolika, kuria manipuliavimo modelius. Tai patraukia vartojimą į orientuotą kultūrą. / One technology that has been described at this work is "electronic money". E-money is a smart card that actually stores money rather than account information. Such a card could be loaded with cash at an ATM just like a traditional purse or wallet. The cardholder could spend the money just like cash at any shops with the appropriate reader. Electronic money technology holds promise to replace the last area where cash is dominant – small-value transactions. It is costly to the merchant to process transactions for only a few cents with checks or credit cards because of the fixed transaction costs they incur for processing. Because they would not require approval, electronic purse transactions would be as cheap to process as cash. In order for these new technologies to revolutionize how we pay, lots of obstacles must be overcome. New technologies usually mean costly new equipment for merchants to install. They will not be persuaded to undertake this investment unless they think many customers will use them or that they will save processing costs. With new technologies, there are usually several versions vying for dominance. However, payment systems work best if everyone is compatible with everyone else. Agreeing on which of these technologies is to become the standard and licensing its widespread use can impede adoption. Finally, we have to be confident that the new technology is beneficial, private, and safe. Only when all of these hurdles have been overcome can a new... [to full text]

Tobulėjant mobiliesiems telefonams ir kitoms technologijoms, atsiranda galimybė pakeisti arba papildyti rinkoje naudojamus grynuosius pinigus jiems ekvivalenčiais elektroniniais pinigais. Elektroniniai pinigai yra viena naujausių atsiskaitymo formų ir jos realizacija rinkoje yra ribota. Darbe buvo realizuotas Stefan Brands elektroninių pinigų modelis naudojant Java platformas kompiuteryje ir mobiliajame telefone. Buvo ištirtas šių realizacijų efektyvumas ir pastebėta, kad realizacija kompiuteryje yra 100 kartų greitesnė negu mobiliajame telefone. Buvo pasiūlyta ir realizuota aritmetinių funkcijų (sudėties, skirtumo, modulio, modulinės eksponentės, postūmio į dešinę) klasė Java Card platformoje. Modulinė eksponentė buvo realizuota RSA algoritmo pagalba. Darbe pateiktas šios realizacijos greičio įvertis. Dėl lėto funkcijų vykdymo pasiūlytas mišrus vartotojo dalies protokolų realizacijos modelis. Darbe pateikiama techninės ir programinės įrangos analizė, reikalinga norint atlikti elektroninių pinigų realizaciją. Taip pat atlikta kriptografinių ir matematinių metodų apžvalga, naudojamų Stefan Brands elektroninių pinigų modelyje. / As mobile phones and technology advance new opportunities for implementation of elektronic money systems become possible. Electronic money is one of the latest methods for paying for goods and there are just a few implementations. In this work implementation of Stefan Brands electronic money model was performed. Stefan Brands protocol was implemented using Java langauge in standard computer and in mobile phone. Efficiency of these implementations was estimated and it was found that implementation on mobile phone is approximetly 100 times slower using Java ME platform. A library for for doing arithmetic operations like addition, subraction, modulus, modular exponentiation, right shift, etc. was implemented using smart card enviroment. As it is not possible to use cryptographic processor directly, RSA encryption scheme was used to perform modular exponention. Results of implementation speed were given and it was concluded that whole client side implementation using Java Card enviroment was two slow so mixed model was suggested. This work also consist of technical and software analysis needed to perform electronic money implementation. Also a brief review of cryptographic ant mathematic methods used in Stefan Brands digital cash system was performed.

AbstractThe European Central Bank defines virtual currencies as ”unregulated, digital money, which is issued and usuallycontrolled by its developers, and used and accepted among the members of a specific virtual community.”(European Central Bank, 2012, p. 5) The interest in virtual currencies has increased immensely over the last fewyears as they become increasingly prevalent in our society across many different industries. Up until now, the field ofvirtual currencies has been mainly uncharted land and despite interest in specific currencies, few attempts havebeen made at understanding or structuring the entire landscapeThe main research question in this thesis is related to the previously mentioned dilemma: understanding andstructuring the virtual currency ecosystem, today and in the future. How can the virtual currency landscape currentlybe analyzed in a structured manner and what framework can be used to reflect and make predictions on the futuredevelopment?The thesis is based on four different sources of information: a literature study of existing material, corporateinterviews with companies dealing with virtual currencies and consumer interviews with potential early adopters, anonline survey and a case study performed at Ericsson M-Commerce. The case study of Ericsson M-Commerce hasprovided valuable insight into understanding how companies reason when considering adopting virtual currenciesinto their product portfolio and greatly helped the process of structuring the virtual currency market in acomprehensive manner. In return, the thesis has also provided decision material for the department concerningvirtual currencies.This thesis divides virtual currencies into five groups: Prepaid Value, Loyalty Points, Monetization Currencies, GamingCurrencies and Value Encoded Currencies. This model has been developed as a framework for the analysis of thecurrent situation in this thesis. However, the analysis in the thesis has shown that as virtual currencies evolve, it willprobably become more relevant to instead consider their functions. It is likely that virtual currencies will consolidateinto three distinct functional types: virtual currency as a unit of account, virtual currency as a business model formonetization, and virtual currencies as a product that can be sold.As virtual currencies evolve, the future is not only filled with many challenges, but also many new opportunities. Inthis thesis, an attempt to gain an abstract understanding of how the field is developing has been made, but it remains to be seen what the real impacts of virtual currencies will be as they continue to gain traction.