An emission inventory tool for estimating SO2, NO2, and PM10 emissions from brick clamp kiln sites was developed from investigations performed on three representative South African clamp kiln sites in order to facilitate application for Atmospheric Emission Licenses (AELs) from these sources. The tool utilizes readily available site-specific parameters to generate emission factors for significant activities that emit the aforementioned pollutants. PM10 emission factors for significant processes were developed using empirical expressions from the Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors (AP-42) documents. SO2 emission factor for clamp kiln firing was obtained from “reverse-modelling”, a technique that integrates ambient monitoring and dispersion modelling (using Atmospheric Dispersion Modelling System software) to “standardize” actual emission rate from an assumed rate of 1 g/s. The use of multiple point sources proved to improve the simulation of the buoyancy-induced plume rise; therefore, a “bi-point” source configuration was adopted for the kiln. The “reverse-modelling” technique and “bi-point” source configuration produced SO2 emission rates differing from -9 % to +22 % from mass balance results, indicating that the “reverse-modelling” calculations provide reliable emission estimates for SO2. An NO2 emission factor could not be obtained from the “reverse-modelling” technique due to experimental errors and the significant effect of NO2 emissions from other onsite air emission sources such as internal combustion engines. The NO2 emission factor was obtained from previous comprehensive study on a similar clamp kiln site. The emission factors obtained from this study were utilized in developing an “emission inventory tool” which is utilized by clay brick manufacturers in quantifying air emissions from their sites. Emissions quantification is a requirement for brick manufacturers to obtain an AEL which is regulated under South African environmental laws. It is suggested that the technique used here for SO2 emission confirmation could be used to estimate emissions from a volume or area source where combustion occurs and where knowledge of the source parameters is limited. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / gm2014 / Chemical Engineering / unrestricted

O cultivo de pinhão manso é indicado como uma opção multi-propósito já que além de ser utilizado como matéria-prima para produção de biodiesel, reduzindo as emissões de gases do efeito estufa (GEE) quando este biocombustível é utilizado em substituição aos combustíveis fósseis, também pode estocar C no solo. O objetivo geral deste trabalho foi avaliar o potencial de sequestro de C no solo em cultivos de pinhão manso, bem como as alterações na qualidade da matéria orgânica do solo (MOS). Para tanto, foram quantificados os estoques de C e N do solo e os fluxos de GEE em cultivos de pinhão manso. O cálculo das taxas de sequestro de C no solo foi efetuado pela diferença entre o acúmulo de C no solo e as emissões de GEE, expressos em C equivalente (C-eq). A qualidade da MOS foi avaliada por meio da análise isotópica, fracionamento físico, índice de manejo do C (IMC), grau de humificação (HFIL) e teores de C e N na biomassa microbiana. A conversão da vegetação nativa em agroecossistemas alterou a quantidade e composição da MOS nos biomas Cerrado, Mata Atlântica e Caatinga, especialmente nas camadas superficiais. O cultivo de pinhão manso manteve os teores e estoques de C e N do solo, independentemente do uso da terra anterior (pastagem, milho ou vegetação nativa), com tendência de aumento em função do tempo de cultivo da cultura. Adicionalmente, a análise isotópica do C e N demostrou que a partir de dois anos de cultivo do pinhão manso há mudanças na composição da MOS. As contribuições do C derivado dos resíduos vegetais do pinhão manso para o C total do solo atingiram 11,5% após 7 anos de cultivo, na camada 0-30 cm. O cultivo de pinhão manso aumentou os teores de C nas frações da MOS, o IMC e os teores de C e N da biomassa microbiana em função do tempo de implantação da cultura, o que evidencia o potencial de melhoria da qualidade da MOS desse sistema a longo prazo. O HFIL foi menor nas áreas de pinhão manso em relação à vegetação nativa, indicando que os incrementos nos teores de C nessas áreas estão associados ao aumento da matéria orgânica menos estável e que a preservação seletiva não é o principal mecanismo de acumulação de C em solos sob pinhão manso. Os fatores de emissão de N2O variaram de 0,21 a 0,46% para doses inferiores à 150 kg ha-1, sendo emitidos 0,0362 Mg ha-1 ano-1 de C-eq quando aplicada a dose média usual no cultivo de pinhão manso (75 kg ha-1 ano-1). O balanço anual entre o acúmulo de C no solo e a emissão dos GEE mostrou que o cultivo de pinhão manso por 7 anos produz saldo positivo, que significou um sequestro de 0,6 Mg ha-1 ano-1 em C-eq. O presente estudo é pioneiro no Brasil e os resultados gerados nesta pesquisa são base para a análise de ciclo de vida do pinhão manso como matéria prima para a produção de biodiesel. / Jatropha cultivation is pointed as a multipurpose option whether is used for biodiesel production reducing greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions when replaces the need for fossil fuels, and also for storing C in the soil. The overall objective of this work was to evaluate the C sequestration potential of soil cultivated with Jatropha, as well as the variations in soil organic matter (SOM) quality. Therefore, C and N stocks were determined and GHG fluxes were measured in Jatropha cultivation. The difference between results from soil C storage and GHG emissions were used to calculate the C sequestration rates, defined as the C-equivalent (C-eq). SOM quality was assessed by isotopic analysis, physical fractioning, C management index (CMI), humufication degree (HFIL) and microbial C and N content. Land use change from native vegetation to agroecosystems altered the amount and composition of soil organic matter located in biomes of Cerrado, Atlantic Forest and Caatinga, especially within the surface layers. Jatropha cultivation preserved soil N and C stocks and contents, regardless of previous land use management (pasture, maize or native vegetation), proning to increase with cultivation time. Additionally, the isotopic analysis of C and N showed changes in SOM after two years with Jatropha cultivation. After 7 years of cultivation, the contribution of carbon derived from Jatropha residues to the total amount of the element stored within the 0-30 cm layer of soil reached 11.5%. The Jatropha cultivation increased the C contents in SOM, the CMI and microbial C and N contents along with cultivation time, which highlights the potential of Jatropha cultivation to improve SOM quality in the long term. HFIL of the areas with Jatropha cultivation showed lower values compared to the native vegetation. This indicates the increments of C contents for the areas planted with Jatropha are associated to the increase of the less stable portion of SOM and that the selective preservation is not the main mechanism responsible for C accumulation in soils under Jatropha cultivation. The N2O emission factors ranged from 0.21 to 0.46% for the doses up to 150 kg ha-1. Considering the average N fertilization rates applied annually in comercial Jatropha cultivation (75 kg ha-1 yr-1), the crop is responsible for the emission of 0.0362 Mg ha-1 yr-1 of C-eq. Moreover, the annual balance between soil C storage and GHG emission indicated that Jatropha cultivation for 7 years is able to contribute to the carbon sequestration accounting for 0.6 Mg ha- 1 yr-1 of C-eq stored in the soil. This study is pioneer in Brazil and the results generated in this research are basis for life cycle analysis of the Jatropha as a feedstock for biodiesel production in Brazil.

O óxido nitroso (N2O) é um gás traço, considerado um dos principais causadores do aquecimento global. Em solos agrícolas, a aplicação de fertilizantes nitrogenados, necessários às culturas, é a principal responsável pela formação deste gás. Internacionalmente, a metodologia mais utilizada e aceita para quantificar os fluxos totais de uma área baseia-se na alteração de concentração no interior de câmeras estáticas instaladas sobre o solo. Entretanto, diversos trabalhos sugerem que as plantas também são agentes desta dinâmica de fluxos entre o solo e a atmosfera, um fator não contabilizado na quase totalidade das pesquisas. O objetivo deste trabalho de pesquisa foi quantificar as emissões de N2O em plantas de milho simultaneamente aos fluxos provenientes do solo ao longo de um ciclo de cultivo, assim, agregar este montante potencial de emissão nas estimativas do sistema solo-planta-atmosfera. O experimento foi conduzido em delineamento inteiramente casualizado, sendo que seis Câmaras de Crescimento e Coleta (CCC\'s) comportaram as plantas de milho e três CCC\'s permaneceram sem plantas (testemunhas). Durante a coleta das amostras a atmosfera no interior das câmaras foi mantida a 28ºC ± 1 °C, a umidade relativa abaixo do ponto de saturação e a concentração de dióxido de carbono (CO2) entre 300 e 400 ppmv. As medidas de N2O provenientes da parte aérea e do solo foram determinadas durante todo o ciclo da cultura do milho (i. e. 105 dias). O fluxo de N-N2O proveniente do solo variou de 10,37 a 693,85 ´mü´g m-2solo h-1. Para a parte aérea das plantas de milho, os fluxos de N-N2O variaram de 65,47 a 1444,92 ´mü´g m-2folha h-1. Os resultados mostraram uma estreita correlação entre as respostas nas emissões provenientes do solo e parte aérea após a aplicação do fertilizante nitrogenado em cobertura, indicando não somente a influencia do conteúdo de N2O do solo, mas também a influência da dimensão da aérea foliar das plantas no momento de disponibilidade deste N2O no solo. O fator de emissão total (solo + parte aérea) calculado em função N-fertilizante aplicado foi de 8,2%. Ao longo do período amostral, cada planta acumulou uma emissão superior a 8000 ´mü´g N-N2O. Os resultados explicitam que, ao negligenciar esta via emissora, pode-se estar subestimando o fluxo total de N2O emitido por uma área sob cultivo em mais de 20% / Nitrous oxide (N2O) is a trace gas, considered a major cause of global warming. In agricultural soils the application of nitrogen fertilizer needed for crops, is the main responsible for the formation of this gas. Internationally, the most used and accepted method to measure total flow from one area is based on the change of concentration into static chambers installed on the soil surface. However, several studies suggest that plants are also active members of this dynamic flux between soil and atmosphere, a factor not accounted for in almost all surveys. Thus, the aim of this research was to simultaneously quantify N2O emissions from maize plants and soil over a crop cycle and thus aggregate this potential amount of emission in the estimates of the soil-plant-atmosphere system. The experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design with six Growth and Sampling Chambers (CCC) containing plants and three Chambers without plants (controls). During sampling period the atmosphere inside the chambers was maintained at 28 ° C ± 1 ° C, relative humidity below the saturation point and the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) between 300 and 400 ppmv. Measurements of N2O from shoot and soil were made throughout the life cycle of maize (i.e. 105 days). The flux of N2O-N from soil ranged from 10.37 to 693.85 ´mü´g m-2 soil h-1. For the shoots of maize, N2O-N flux ranged from 65.47 to 1444.92 ´mü´g m-2 leaf h-1. The results showed a close correlation between the responses from soil and shoot emissions after the application of nitrogen fertilizer as topdressing, indicating not only the influence of the content of N2O in soil, but also the influence the leaf size of the plants when N2O was available in the soil. The total emission factor (soil + shoot) calculated according to total N in the applied fertilizer was 8.2%. Over the sample period, each plant accumulated more than 8000 ´mü´g N-N2O emissions. The results of this research indicates that ignoring this way of N2O release can lead to an underestimation of almost 20% of the total N2O flux emitted by an area under cultivation

O cultivo de pinhão manso é indicado como uma opção multi-propósito já que além de ser utilizado como matéria-prima para produção de biodiesel, reduzindo as emissões de gases do efeito estufa (GEE) quando este biocombustível é utilizado em substituição aos combustíveis fósseis, também pode estocar C no solo. O objetivo geral deste trabalho foi avaliar o potencial de sequestro de C no solo em cultivos de pinhão manso, bem como as alterações na qualidade da matéria orgânica do solo (MOS). Para tanto, foram quantificados os estoques de C e N do solo e os fluxos de GEE em cultivos de pinhão manso. O cálculo das taxas de sequestro de C no solo foi efetuado pela diferença entre o acúmulo de C no solo e as emissões de GEE, expressos em C equivalente (C-eq). A qualidade da MOS foi avaliada por meio da análise isotópica, fracionamento físico, índice de manejo do C (IMC), grau de humificação (HFIL) e teores de C e N na biomassa microbiana. A conversão da vegetação nativa em agroecossistemas alterou a quantidade e composição da MOS nos biomas Cerrado, Mata Atlântica e Caatinga, especialmente nas camadas superficiais. O cultivo de pinhão manso manteve os teores e estoques de C e N do solo, independentemente do uso da terra anterior (pastagem, milho ou vegetação nativa), com tendência de aumento em função do tempo de cultivo da cultura. Adicionalmente, a análise isotópica do C e N demostrou que a partir de dois anos de cultivo do pinhão manso há mudanças na composição da MOS. As contribuições do C derivado dos resíduos vegetais do pinhão manso para o C total do solo atingiram 11,5% após 7 anos de cultivo, na camada 0-30 cm. O cultivo de pinhão manso aumentou os teores de C nas frações da MOS, o IMC e os teores de C e N da biomassa microbiana em função do tempo de implantação da cultura, o que evidencia o potencial de melhoria da qualidade da MOS desse sistema a longo prazo. O HFIL foi menor nas áreas de pinhão manso em relação à vegetação nativa, indicando que os incrementos nos teores de C nessas áreas estão associados ao aumento da matéria orgânica menos estável e que a preservação seletiva não é o principal mecanismo de acumulação de C em solos sob pinhão manso. Os fatores de emissão de N2O variaram de 0,21 a 0,46% para doses inferiores à 150 kg ha-1, sendo emitidos 0,0362 Mg ha-1 ano-1 de C-eq quando aplicada a dose média usual no cultivo de pinhão manso (75 kg ha-1 ano-1). O balanço anual entre o acúmulo de C no solo e a emissão dos GEE mostrou que o cultivo de pinhão manso por 7 anos produz saldo positivo, que significou um sequestro de 0,6 Mg ha-1 ano-1 em C-eq. O presente estudo é pioneiro no Brasil e os resultados gerados nesta pesquisa são base para a análise de ciclo de vida do pinhão manso como matéria prima para a produção de biodiesel. / Jatropha cultivation is pointed as a multipurpose option whether is used for biodiesel production reducing greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions when replaces the need for fossil fuels, and also for storing C in the soil. The overall objective of this work was to evaluate the C sequestration potential of soil cultivated with Jatropha, as well as the variations in soil organic matter (SOM) quality. Therefore, C and N stocks were determined and GHG fluxes were measured in Jatropha cultivation. The difference between results from soil C storage and GHG emissions were used to calculate the C sequestration rates, defined as the C-equivalent (C-eq). SOM quality was assessed by isotopic analysis, physical fractioning, C management index (CMI), humufication degree (HFIL) and microbial C and N content. Land use change from native vegetation to agroecosystems altered the amount and composition of soil organic matter located in biomes of Cerrado, Atlantic Forest and Caatinga, especially within the surface layers. Jatropha cultivation preserved soil N and C stocks and contents, regardless of previous land use management (pasture, maize or native vegetation), proning to increase with cultivation time. Additionally, the isotopic analysis of C and N showed changes in SOM after two years with Jatropha cultivation. After 7 years of cultivation, the contribution of carbon derived from Jatropha residues to the total amount of the element stored within the 0-30 cm layer of soil reached 11.5%. The Jatropha cultivation increased the C contents in SOM, the CMI and microbial C and N contents along with cultivation time, which highlights the potential of Jatropha cultivation to improve SOM quality in the long term. HFIL of the areas with Jatropha cultivation showed lower values compared to the native vegetation. This indicates the increments of C contents for the areas planted with Jatropha are associated to the increase of the less stable portion of SOM and that the selective preservation is not the main mechanism responsible for C accumulation in soils under Jatropha cultivation. The N2O emission factors ranged from 0.21 to 0.46% for the doses up to 150 kg ha-1. Considering the average N fertilization rates applied annually in comercial Jatropha cultivation (75 kg ha-1 yr-1), the crop is responsible for the emission of 0.0362 Mg ha-1 yr-1 of C-eq. Moreover, the annual balance between soil C storage and GHG emission indicated that Jatropha cultivation for 7 years is able to contribute to the carbon sequestration accounting for 0.6 Mg ha- 1 yr-1 of C-eq stored in the soil. This study is pioneer in Brazil and the results generated in this research are basis for life cycle analysis of the Jatropha as a feedstock for biodiesel production in Brazil.

O óxido nitroso (N2O) é um gás traço, considerado um dos principais causadores do aquecimento global. Em solos agrícolas, a aplicação de fertilizantes nitrogenados, necessários às culturas, é a principal responsável pela formação deste gás. Internacionalmente, a metodologia mais utilizada e aceita para quantificar os fluxos totais de uma área baseia-se na alteração de concentração no interior de câmeras estáticas instaladas sobre o solo. Entretanto, diversos trabalhos sugerem que as plantas também são agentes desta dinâmica de fluxos entre o solo e a atmosfera, um fator não contabilizado na quase totalidade das pesquisas. O objetivo deste trabalho de pesquisa foi quantificar as emissões de N2O em plantas de milho simultaneamente aos fluxos provenientes do solo ao longo de um ciclo de cultivo, assim, agregar este montante potencial de emissão nas estimativas do sistema solo-planta-atmosfera. O experimento foi conduzido em delineamento inteiramente casualizado, sendo que seis Câmaras de Crescimento e Coleta (CCC\'s) comportaram as plantas de milho e três CCC\'s permaneceram sem plantas (testemunhas). Durante a coleta das amostras a atmosfera no interior das câmaras foi mantida a 28ºC ± 1 °C, a umidade relativa abaixo do ponto de saturação e a concentração de dióxido de carbono (CO2) entre 300 e 400 ppmv. As medidas de N2O provenientes da parte aérea e do solo foram determinadas durante todo o ciclo da cultura do milho (i. e. 105 dias). O fluxo de N-N2O proveniente do solo variou de 10,37 a 693,85 ´mü´g m-2solo h-1. Para a parte aérea das plantas de milho, os fluxos de N-N2O variaram de 65,47 a 1444,92 ´mü´g m-2folha h-1. Os resultados mostraram uma estreita correlação entre as respostas nas emissões provenientes do solo e parte aérea após a aplicação do fertilizante nitrogenado em cobertura, indicando não somente a influencia do conteúdo de N2O do solo, mas também a influência da dimensão da aérea foliar das plantas no momento de disponibilidade deste N2O no solo. O fator de emissão total (solo + parte aérea) calculado em função N-fertilizante aplicado foi de 8,2%. Ao longo do período amostral, cada planta acumulou uma emissão superior a 8000 ´mü´g N-N2O. Os resultados explicitam que, ao negligenciar esta via emissora, pode-se estar subestimando o fluxo total de N2O emitido por uma área sob cultivo em mais de 20% / Nitrous oxide (N2O) is a trace gas, considered a major cause of global warming. In agricultural soils the application of nitrogen fertilizer needed for crops, is the main responsible for the formation of this gas. Internationally, the most used and accepted method to measure total flow from one area is based on the change of concentration into static chambers installed on the soil surface. However, several studies suggest that plants are also active members of this dynamic flux between soil and atmosphere, a factor not accounted for in almost all surveys. Thus, the aim of this research was to simultaneously quantify N2O emissions from maize plants and soil over a crop cycle and thus aggregate this potential amount of emission in the estimates of the soil-plant-atmosphere system. The experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design with six Growth and Sampling Chambers (CCC) containing plants and three Chambers without plants (controls). During sampling period the atmosphere inside the chambers was maintained at 28 ° C ± 1 ° C, relative humidity below the saturation point and the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) between 300 and 400 ppmv. Measurements of N2O from shoot and soil were made throughout the life cycle of maize (i.e. 105 days). The flux of N2O-N from soil ranged from 10.37 to 693.85 ´mü´g m-2 soil h-1. For the shoots of maize, N2O-N flux ranged from 65.47 to 1444.92 ´mü´g m-2 leaf h-1. The results showed a close correlation between the responses from soil and shoot emissions after the application of nitrogen fertilizer as topdressing, indicating not only the influence of the content of N2O in soil, but also the influence the leaf size of the plants when N2O was available in the soil. The total emission factor (soil + shoot) calculated according to total N in the applied fertilizer was 8.2%. Over the sample period, each plant accumulated more than 8000 ´mü´g N-N2O emissions. The results of this research indicates that ignoring this way of N2O release can lead to an underestimation of almost 20% of the total N2O flux emitted by an area under cultivation

I Sverige står bostads- och servicesektorn för cirka 40 % av landets totala energianvändning. Byggnader äldre än 30 år har ofta en god energibesparingspotential och energieffektivisering av dessa byggnader kan bidra till att uppnå energi- och miljömålen. Energibesparingarna har länge stått i fokus vid val av energieffektiviseringsåtgärd men på senare tid har växthusgaserna, främst CO2-utsläppen, fått ett ökat intresse vid ny- och ombyggnationer. En minskning av växthusgaser från bebyggelsen är en viktig åtgärd för att bidra till en minskad klimatpåverkan och för att klimatmålen ska uppnås, såsom Sveriges klimatmål om att senast år 2045 inte ha några nettoutsläpp av växthusgaser. Detta examensarbete har genomförts för det kommunägda och allmännyttiga bostadsföretaget Stockholmshem. Syftet var att undersöka vilka energiåtgärder som bör prioriteras i flerbostadshus från miljonprogrammet ur ett klimatperspektiv. Målet med arbetet är att det ska kunna användas som framtida beslutsunderlag vid energieffektivisering av flerbostadshus från miljonprogrammets tid. Arbetet utfördes på två flerbostadshus, Åkeshovsvägen och Axbyplan, som båda tillhör Stockholmshems fastighetsbestånd och är byggda under miljonprogrammet. Ett intresse fanns av att studera hur energiåtgärder påverkas av olika formfaktor, vilket gjorde att de valda flerbostadshusen ansågs lämpliga. Resultatet är tänkt att kunna appliceras på andra liknande flerbostadshus från denna tid, vilket gör att dessa byggnader ses som typbyggnader. I arbetet har energiberäkningar utförts där energiberäkningsprogrammet BV2 och nyckeltal har använts. Lönsamhetsberäkningar har genomförts med internräntemetoden, där kravet på kalkylräntan var 5 %. Klimatberäkningar utfördes för att undersöka hur många år det tar för olika energiåtgärder och åtgärdspaket att betala sig tillbaka klimatmässigt, vilket i rapporten benämns CO2-payback. Resultatet visade på högre energibesparingar för klimatskärmsåtgärder på Axbyplan, medan Åkeshovsvägen uppnådde högre energibesparing för ombyggnaden av ett F-system till ett FX-system. Detta beror främst på att byggnaderna besitter olika formfaktor och energiprestanda. En internränta på 5 till 8 % uppnåddes i de flesta fallen, vilket påvisar att energieffektivisering ofta kan vara lönsamt. I en känslighetsanalys där det undersöktes hur internräntan påverkas av energiprisutvecklingen, kan det konstateras att variationer i värme- och elpriset har en marginell påverkan på lönsamheten. Åtgärderna isolerruta och nytt fönster visade inte på någon större skillnad i energibesparing, däremot uppnådde isolerrutan bättre lönsamhet och kortare CO2-payback, vilket innebär att isolerrutan bör prioriteras före nytt fönster. Kombinationen av solceller och ett FX-system med 12 månaders drifttid påvisade bättre lönsamhet när värmepumparna kan drivas av solel och producera varmvatten sommartid, istället för enbart värmeproduktion 5 månader per år. Tillsammans med den energibesparing och CO2-payback som paketet Sol + FX uppnår, påvisar paketet att kombinationen av de två åtgärderna bör genomföras i de fall som byggnader har de rätta förutsättningarna. Med den klimatpåverkan som fjärrvärme- och elmixen har i dagsläget anses åtgärdernas och åtgärdspaketens CO2-payback vara relativt kort. Den är avsevärt kortare än deras tekniska livslängd, vilket innebär att de alla är klimatmässigt gynnsamma att genomföra. Fjärrvärme- och elmixen förväntas däremot att bli mer klimatneutrala. Det medför att åtgärdernas och åtgärdspaketens CO2-payback blir längre och att eventuellt flera av åtgärderna och åtgärdspaketen inte blir klimatmässigt gynnsamma. Åtgärderna värmeinjustering och styrning av värmesystem med temperaturgivare visade på en kort CO2-payback även med en klimatneutralare fjärrvärme, vilket innebär att de kommer vara klimatmässigt gynnsamma även i framtiden. Tillsammans med den energibesparing och lönsamhet som de två åtgärderna uppnår anses värmeinjustering och styrning vara bäst ur alla tre kategorier. Vilka åtgärder som är lämpligast att genomföra och som bör prioriteras beror däremot till stor del på varje byggnads förutsättningar. Det är viktigt att ta hänsyn till de specifika förutsättningarna i varje byggnad, då förutsättningarna har en påverkan på såväl energibesparing, lönsamhet som klimat. Genom det resultat som framkommit i arbetet kan en vägledning fås för vilka åtgärder och åtgärdspaket som är fördelaktiga att genomföra för olika typer av byggnadskonstruktioner. / In Sweden, the residential and service sector accounts for approximately 40 % of the country's total energy use. Buildings older than 30 years often have a good energy saving potential and by implementing energy efficiency measures to these buildings, the energy and environmental goals can easier be achieved. Energy savings have for a long time been in focus when selecting an energy efficiency measure, but more recently the greenhouse gases, mainly the CO2-emissions, have gained an increased interest in new constructions and reconstructions. A reduction of greenhouse gases from the buildings is an important measure to contribute to a reduced climate impact and to achieve the climate goals, such as Sweden's climate goal of not having any net greenhouse gas emissions by 2045. This master thesis has been carried out for the municipally owned and the public utility housing company Stockholmshem. The aim was to examine which energy measures that should be prioritized in apartment buildings from the Million Programme through a climate perspective. The objective is for it to be used as a future decision basis for energy efficiency improvement of apartment buildings from the Million Programme. The study was carried out on two apartment buildings, Åkeshovsvägen and Axbyplan, both of which are part of Stockholmshem's property portfolio and are built under the Million Programme. There was an interest in studying how the energy measures are affected by various form factors, which made the selected apartment buildings considered suitable. The result is intended to be applicable to other similar apartment buildings from this time, which makes these buildings seen as type buildings. Energy calculations have been performed in the study, where the energy calculation program BV2 and key figures have been used. Profitability calculations have been made using the internal rate method, where the required rate of return was 5 %. Climate calculations were carried out to investigate how many years it takes for different energy measures and package of measures to be paid back climate-wise, which in the report is called CO2-payback. The result showed higher energy savings for climate shell measures at Axbyplan, while Åkeshovsvägen achieved a higher energy saving for the conversion of a F-system to a FX-system. This is mainly due to the fact that the buildings have different form factor and energy performance. An internal rate of 5 to 8 % was achieved in most cases, which indicates that energy efficiency can often be profitable. In a sensitivity analysis that examined how the internal rate is affected by energy price trends, it can be found that variations in the heating and electricity prices have a marginal impact on the profitability. The insulating glass and the new window did not show any significant difference in energy savings. However, the insulating glass achieved better profitability and shorter CO2-payback, which means that the insulating glass should be prioritized before a new window. The combination of solar panels and an FX-system with 12 months operation time showed better profitability when the heat pumps can be powered by solar power and produce hot water during summertime, than only heat production 5 months per year. Along with the energy saving and CO2-payback that the package achieves, the package demonstrates that the combination of the two measures should be implemented in cases where buildings have the right conditions. With the climate impact that the district heating mix and electricity mix currently has, the CO2-payback for the measures and package of measures is considered to be relatively short. It is significantly shorter than their technical life time, which means that they are all climate favourable to implement. The district heating mix and the electricity mix are though expected to become more climate neutral. This means that the CO2-payback for the measures and package of measures will become longer and that possibly several of the measures and package of measures will not be climate favourable. Adjustment of heating system and control of heating system with temperature sensors was two measures that showed on a short CO2-payback even with a more climate neutral district heating. Therefore, they will be climate favourable in the future. Along with the energy savings and profitability achieved by the two measures, heat adjustment and control with temperature sensor are considered to be the best in all three categories. Which measures that are most appropriate to implement and which should be prioritized depend largely on the conditions of each building, as the conditions have an impact on both energy saving, profitability and climate. Through the results that have emerged in the work, a guide can be obtained for which measures and package of measures are advantageous to implement for different types of building constructions.

As the world grapples with the increasingly dire effects of climate change, companies are under more pressure than ever before to not just report on their environmental impact, but to actively work towards sustainability. Carbon accounting has emerged as a crucial aspect of this reporting, and the concept of Scope 3 emissions, introduced by the Greenhouse Gas Protocol a decade ago, is now a vital tool for assessing a company's environmental footprint. Focusing on 124 large Swedish companies that are aligned with the Science-based target initiative, this research aims to investigate the methods and data used to assess their Scope 3 emissions. Through a qualitative approach that includes content analysis of published sustainability reports and a comprehensive literature review. The findings of this study are illuminating, revealing a troubling lack of consistency and comparability in the data, methods, and numbers disclosed by the companies. This highlights the need for transparency, comparability, and sector-specific guidelines in sustainability reporting standards. Furthermore, the study calls for further research to evaluate the effectiveness of current Scope 3 data collection tools and explore the potential impact of emerging technologies on reducing emissions across a company's value chain. By shedding light on these crucial issues, this study offers valuable insights for policymakers, academics, and corporate actors alike.

Stricter requirements from the European Union and the German government regarding the utilization of renewable and sustainable fuels for transportation, power, and heat production are currently in effect. This has led to that heavy transportation companies are looking for a more sustainable alternative to liquefied natural gas, such as liquefied biomethane. The monetary costs for the release of greenhouse gas are also increasing due to the carbon certificates that are being traded are decreasing in numbers each year. Carbon certificates grant companies an allowance of releasing a certain amount of emissions without being fined. Carbon dioxide and biomethane liquefaction can be a good investment for producers of biomethane to find new markets by for example trading in carbon certificates, selling liquid carbon dioxide, and producing liquefied biomethane as an alternative transportation fuel. The sale price of biomethane is heavily dependant on the emission factor for the biomethane and as such, capturing the carbon dioxide from the biomethane plant and off-setting fossil carbon dioxide would increase the sale price of the biomethane. The methods used are theoretical and quantitative, Numerical data was collected to be able to perform the economical and environmental calculations. The investment cost for the liquefaction technologies was scaled down to correspond to a plant with a production capacity of 350 Nm3/h. Also included in this thesis is a review of biomethane production, together with theory for the economical and environmental calculations.  By performing a technical, economical and environmental assessment of the technologies for the liquefaction of carbon dioxide and biomethane. This thesis shows that liquefaction of biomethane is not an economical viable option at the moment for plants equal or below this production capacity, due to a negative net present value, negative return on investment, sensitivity to fluctuating costs, and a high payback time. However, it could help in achieving the sustainability goals set forth by the European Union and the German government. With regards to the liquefaction of carbon dioxide it is deemed a viable investment option with an investment cost of approximately 1 million Euro and a payback time of approximately 3 years. Liquefaction of carbon dioxide could bring an extra income to the biomethane plant. This due to an added revenue in the sales of liquid carbon dioxide and an increase in the sale price of biomethane due to a reduction of the emission factor from 17 gCO2-eq /MJ to -23 gCO2-eq /MJ. The investment could also help achieving the sustainability goals by decreasing the dependence on fossil carbon dioxide for various sectors.

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Made available in DSpace on 2014-07-29T16:24:16Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertacao Adriana R da Costa.pdf: 1069791 bytes, checksum: 743805ac385dad30c9c493e611823930 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011-02-24 / The loss of nitrogen from the soil-plant system has economic and environmental repercussions, especially when nitrous oxide is emitted to the atmosphere. The aim of this study was to evaluate the emission of nitrous oxide (N2O) in the production system of irrigated commom beans under no-tillage, with brachiaria grass as cover plant (green manure), as affected by the application of different N sources. The experiment was conducted at Embrapa Rice and Beans, in a clayey Haplic Ferralsol. Six areas planted with common beans in no-till system, with sprinkler irrigation, center pivot, were evaluated in the fall/winter period of 2009. In each area (150 m2) a different source on N (treatments) was applied. The total area of the study was 1000 m2. The treatments were: no N (control), urea, ammonium sulfate (A.S.), urea + urease inhibitor (Ur.+Inhi.), urea combined with charcoal (Ur.+Car.), biological fixation nitrogen (B.F.N.), Cerrado (Cer). One hundred kg of N ha-1 was applied in all areas: 20% at sowing together with the seed at the same depth and 80% as top dressing, 25 days after planting. Periods, whose N2O fluxes were more important, were selected for more detailed study, including soil biological variables. The N2O concentration was determined by gas chromatography. Concurrently, soil moisture, temperature, water filled pore space (WFPS), pH and parameters related to the microbial biomass were also measured. The variables that influence soil N2O fluxes during the growing cycle of the bean are: the levels of nitrate in the soil, pH, moisture and WFPS, indicating conditions that favor the denitrification process. The highest emissions of N2O, occur in the following treatments: urea with urease inhibitor, biological nitrogen fixation and urea associated with charcoal, 70%, 36% and 32% higher then that observed in the control, respectively. The emission factors observed in this study are below the lowest levels suggested by IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). After fertilization at sowing, the variables that control the emission of N2O are basal respiration, microbial biomass carbon (MBC), microbial biomass nitrogen (MBN), total organic carbon (TOC), soil moisture and WFPS. The charcoal combined with urea provides better conditions for microorganisms, increasing MBC and microbial quocient. After topdressing N2O fluxes are lower than at sowing, possibly due to higher N losses through volatilization or increased demand for N by the plant and consequent higher N uptake by plants. The ammonium sulfate source shows the highest N2O fluxes in this period. The variables that control N2O emission in this period are: MBN, pH, moisture and WFPS. During the senescence of the bean plants urea combined with urease inhibitor and biological fixation nitrogen are the treatments that most emitt N2O. The variables that controll the fluxes are soil temperature and TOC. / A perda de nitrogênio no sistema solo-planta tem repercussões econômicas e ambientais, especialmente quando óxidos de nitrogênio são emitidos para a atmosfera. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar a emissão de óxido nitrosos (N2O) em sistema de produção de feijoeiro comum irrigado em sistema plantio direto, sobre palhada de braquiária, com aplicação de diferentes fontes de nitrogênio (N), bem como as variáveis ambientais e do solo que condicionam esta emissão. O experimento foi conduzido na Embrapa Arroz e Feijão, num Latossolo Vermelho distrófico argiloso. Foram avaliadas seis áreas de cultivo de feijoeiro comum, em sistema plantio direto, sobre palhada de braquiária, irrigado por aspersão via pivô central, no outono/inverno de 2009. A área de cada tratamento foi de 150 m2. A área total do estudo foi de 1000 m2. Os tratamentos foram: Sem N (testemunha); Uréia; Sulfato de amônio (S.A.); Uréia tratada com inibidor de urease (Ur.+ Inib.); Uréia combinada com carvão vegetal (Ur.+Car.); Fixação biológica de nitrogênio (F.B.N.); Cerradão (Cer) como referência. Foram aplicados 100 kg ha-1 de N: 20% na linha de semeadura e 80% em cobertura, a lanço, 25 dias após plantio. Selecionaram-se períodos, cujos fluxos de N2O apresentaram maior relevância, para que fosse realizado um estudo mais detalhado, incluindo variáveis biológicas do solo. A concentração de N2O foi determinada por cromatografia gasosa. Concomitantemente, realizou-se amostragem de solo para verificação da temperatura, espaço poroso saturado por água (EPSA), pH e parâmetros referentes a biomassa microbiana. As variáveis de solo que mais influenciam os fluxos de N2O, durante o ciclo do feijoeiro, são os teores de nitrato no solo, pH e EPSA, cujas condições favorecem o processo de desnitrificação, no sistema de produção irrigada em plantio direto. As maiores emissões totais de N2O, ocorrem nos seguintes tratamentos: uréia com inibidor de urease, fixação biológica de nitrogênio e uréia associada ao carvão vegetal, sendo 70%, 36% e 32% maior que o observado na testemunha, respectivamente. Os fatores de emissão observados neste estudo estão abaixo dos menores níveis sugeridos pelo IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). Após adubação no sulco, as variáveis que controlam a emissão de N2O são respiração basal, carbono da biomassa microbiana (CBM), nitrogênio da biomassa microbiana (NBM), carbono orgânico total (COT) e EPSA. O carvão vegetal combinado com uréia proporciona melhores condições aos microrganismos, elevando índices como o CBM e o quociente microbiano. Após a adubação de cobertura os fluxos de N2O são menores que na semeadura, talvez devido a maiores perdas de N por volatilização e maior demanda pela planta por N, sendo o sulfato de amônio a fonte que mais emitiu N2O. As variáveis que controlam a emissão de N2O neste período são o NBM, o pH do solo e o EPSA. No período de senescência do feijoeiro as fontes uréia combinada com inibidor de urease e a fixação biológica de nitrogênio são as que mais emitem N2O, sendo as variáveis que controlam este período de emissão, a temperatura do solo e o COT.