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The care and welfare of laboratory animals born, nurtured and experimented upon within a research facility is the primary function for animal technologists. While discharging these responsibilities the emotional needs of the carers require consideration, balancing their perceptions of animal care against the purpose for which the animals exist. As little published information is available on the emotional challenges faced by UK animal technologists, this thesis redresses the balance, exploring the subject in detail through qualitative and quantitative methods. Emotional dissonance, often expressed as felt emotion versus enacted emotion, is a negative output from Emotional Labour. Animal technologists operate in a service environment and the results demonstrate that they ‘act’ under duress and self-regulate which emotions to display. Using exploratory factor analysis the results illustrate two key drivers on felt and enacted emotions. These include internal elements associated with daily tasks elements such as euthanasia and external factors such as budgets over which they have little or no control. Emotional dissonance is shown to occur within various employment grades. Resultant emotions include, guilt, shame and sadness. These can lead to affects upon job satisfaction propagating feelings of workplace alienation, isolation and fear, particularly from antivivisectionist organisations. When organisational support was not forthcoming or lacked empathy, individuals deployed various coping methods. This demonstrates both management and organisational implications including gender, educational attainment and whether a person has staff supervision responsibilities. Observations drawn through both qualitative and quantitative research clearly signpost a spectrum of indicators of emotional dissonance leading to individual, managerial and organisational theoretical implications. In doing so, emotion knowledge has been increased on a previously under researched occupational sector existing within a largely secretive environment. The research on a hitherto largely unknown employment grouping provides insights that had previously existed only mainly in anecdotal ways. The results provide strong evidence to further support existing research demonstrating how roles with significant emotional components directly impact upon individuals and the organisations that employ them.

« .Les émotions sont une partie intégrante et inséparable de la vie organisationnelle de tous les jours. Depuis les moments d’anéantissement ou de joie, de peine ou de peur, jusqu’à la sensation permanente d’insatisfaction ou d’emprisonnement, l’expérience au travail est saturée de sentiments. » (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1995, p.97). Certaines professions sont particulièrement exigeantes sur le plan émotionnel, par exemple les professions d’aide (Mann, 2005). Notre recherche a pour objectif d’analyser les exigences émotionnelles de la profession d’infirmières. En particulier, il s’agit de considérer la relation émotionnelle avec les patients comme un aspect essentiel de la charge de travail :devoir gérer et personnaliser les interactions et les communications, en vue de mettre en œuvre la compréhension interpersonnelle nécessaire. De manière à explorer cette fonction professionnelle, nous utiliserons le concept de « travail émotionnel », proposé par Hochschild en 1983. L’hypothèse centrale de son étude considère que le travail émotionnel consiste en l’effort, la planification et le contrôle exigé pour exprimer les émotions désirées par l’organisation durant les transactions (Morris & Feldman, 1996). Il demande au travailleur de supprimer l’expression de certaines émotions ou au contraire d’exprimer des émotions non ressenties afin que les émotions exprimées soient en accord avec les règles émotionnelles propres à l’institution. Les émotions au travail ont un caractère ambivalent. Ces résultats mixtes suggèrent de ne pas se focaliser sur les émotions négatives ou positives, mais plutôt de se concentrer sur le comment les infirmiers peuvent réguler leurs émotions pendant les interactions avec les patients. On a choisi comme indicateurs du travail émotionnel deux états personnels différents: l’empathie (Eisenberg, 2002, 2004 – Bonino et al. 2003) et la dissonance émotionnelle (Zapf, 2002), qui peuvent être utilisées par les infirmiers dans la relation avec leurs patients. Le concept d'empathie désigne la capacité à comprendre les états affectifs d'autrui et la capacité à partager les émotions avec autrui. L’empathie présente un attribut plutôt cognitif. Cette précision est importante pour différencier l’empathie de la sympathie :quand les infirmiers montrent de l’empathie, ils sont capables de se dégager des émotions du patient, préservant leur propre espace personnel sans perdre de vue leur rôle et leurs responsabilités professionnelles. Utiliser l’empathie dans les relations avec les patients va s’avérer avantageux pour les infirmiers parce que l’empathie permet d’instaurer un rapport authentique, établissant un juste milieu entre compassion et retrait (Hojat, 2007). La dissonance émotionnelle surgit quand un employé doit montrer une émotion qu’il ne ressent pas sincèrement dans une situation particulière :soit le sujet ne ressent rien quand on attend de lui qu’il ressente un sentiment précis, soit au contraire la règle émotionnelle lui impose de supprimer une émotion non désirée (par ex la colère). La dissonance émotionnelle a été considérée depuis le début des recherches comme le cœur du problème du travail émotionnel. Elle peut amener le travailleur à se sentir hypocrite, menteur, et à long terme elle peut entraîner une aliénation de ses propres émotions, une perte d’estime de soi et de la dépression (Zapf, 2002). Cette contribution vise à vérifier le rôle de l’empathie et de la dissonance émotionnelle sur la qualité de vie au travail (satisfaction au travail, l’engagement et les comportements de citoyenneté) dans le nursing. Un questionnaire a été complété par 222 infirmier(e)s, travaillant dans différents hôpitaux d’une région du Nord de l’Italie. L’échelle d’empathie a été soumise à une analyse factorielle confirmatoire, en utilisant le logiciel EQS. Les résultats montrent que la solution à deux facteurs présente des indices d’ajustement corrects. (RMSEA = 0.108 CFI = 0.829 GFI = 0.874 AGFI = 0.821). Cette analyse factorielle confirme les deux composantes de l’empathie telle que définie par Hojat (2007). La composante cognitive consiste en la prise de perspective et donc en la capacité de comprendre le point de vue de l’autre. La composante affective définit la compassion. Les résultats de l’étude 1 (modèle 1) confirment que :l’empathie a une forte composante cognitive. L’analyse factorielle souligne que le facteur dominant est la prise de perspective (perspective taking; Hojat, 2009) et donc la capacité de comprendre le point de vue de l’autre. De plus les analyses montrent que la prise de perspective explique le work engagement, les comportements de citoyenneté et la satisfaction professionnelle. On peut penser que la compréhension empathique génère un feedback dynamique où tant l’infirmier que le patient jouent un rôle actif et satisfaisant. Ces résultats confirment que l’empathie peut être une ressource émotionnelle utile tant pour les infirmiers que pour les structures de santé. La plupart des études se sont concentrées sur les effets nuisibles de la dissonance sur la santé des employés. Actuellement, les études tendent à considérer la dissonance émotionnelle comme un état psychologique (Pugh, 2011), qui a des liens avec la dissonance cognitive (Festinger, 1973). Ces études soulignent que la dissonance n’est pas négative en soi, mais l’est seulement dans certaines conditions. La plupart des études se sont concentrées sur les effets nuisibles de la dissonance sur la santé des employés. Actuellement, les études tendent à considérer la dissonance émotionnelle comme un état psychologique (Pugh, 2011), qui a des liens avec la dissonance cognitive (Festinger, 1973). Ces études soulignent que la dissonance n’est pas négative en soi, mais l’est seulement dans certaines conditions.Le cadre théorique du paradigme de l’Effort-Justification (Harman-Jones & Mills, 1999), a suscité l’hypothèse que la dissonance émotionnelle peut être modérée à différents niveaux. Les résultats confirment que les effets nuisibles de la dissonance peuvent être réduits. On pose l’hypothèse que l’engagement affectif protège de la sensation d’aliénation, causée de la dissonance émotionnnelle, en fournissant un sens d’appartenance et d’affiliation.On pose l’hypothèse que la signification accordée au travail réduit les effets nuisibles de la dissonance émotionnelle, parce que l’individu peut mieux accepter se sentir menteur et hypocrite s’il y a une motivation et une raison. L’absence d’effet de modération entre empathie et dissonance émotionnelle a des implications pour les études futures: par exemple de vérifier si empathie et dissonance émotionnelle sont des stratégies de régulation des émotions totalement différentes. / Doctorat en Sciences psychologiques et de l'éducation / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

The present study examines the process of emotional labor as performed by customer service employees. This research investigates some of the consequences of performing emotional labor such as emotional exhaustion, affective well-being, and job satisfaction, and attempts to determine which individual and organizational variables play moderating roles in these relationships. One hundred and seventy-six participants from 10 customer service organizations, ranging from retail stores to call centers, completed a 126-item survey. Correlation and regression analyses were conducted to test the proposed hypotheses. Results indicate that gender, emotional intelligence, and autonomy are key moderator variables in the relationship between emotional labor and emotional exhaustion, affective well-being, and job satisfaction. Females are more likely to experience negative consequences when engaging in surface acting. Individuals high in emotional intelligence experienced positive outcomes as emotional labor increased, and the converse is true for those low in emotional intelligence. Autonomy serves to alleviate negative outcomes primarily at the higher levels of emotional labor.

Emotions are recognized as central to organizational life. The dialogue on the role of emotion in organizational life is furthered here by addressing the role that gendered display rules and associated expectations play in shaping individuals' expressed (rather than felt) responses to emotional exchanges within the organization. The role of gender in shaping intraorganizational emotional display rules is examined as it interplays at social, organizational and individual normative levels. In this context, emotions and emotional displays at work are seen as affecting individual's subjective social place in organizations. It is argued that gendering influences within the organization make social place marking more difficult and may result in increased forms of emotional labor, particularly surface acting/emotional dissonance, which may lead to emotional exhaustion in employees. A laboratory experiment was conducted using videotaped vignettes to represent more and less levels of gendering in emotional interactions. Findings indicate that there were no main effects for level of gendering as operationalized by this study on emotional dissonance, emotional exhaustion and subjective social place. Exploratory data analyses conducted further examine these relationships and point out the importance of the sex of the employee involved in the emotional exchange. This study points towards theoretical and empirical implications for how emotions are interpreted not only by members of different sex categories, but also for other dimensions of diversity in the organization and associated consequences.

Human Resource personnel as part of their daily jobs provide a service to other employees within a mining industry. These service workers may experience dissonance between their actual feelings and the feelings they are expected to display. For these service workers to be more engaged at work, emotional intelligence and social support is vital. If these factors are not in place, their well-being may be in jeopardy. The objective of this research was to determine the relationship between Emotion Work, Emotional Intelligence, Well-being and Social Support of service workers in a human resource field within a mining industry. A cross-sectional survey design was used. The study population (n = 229) consisted of human resource personnel in the Limpopo and North West Province. The Greek Emotional Intelligence Scale (GEIS), Frankfurt Emotion Work Scales, Utrecht Work Engagement Scale, Oldenburg Burnout Inventory and Social Support Scale, as well as a biographical questionnaire, were used as measuring instruments. Cronbach alpha coefficients, factor analysis, inter-item correlation coefficients, Pearson product moment correlation coefficient and stepwise multiple regression analysis were used to analyse the data. An analysis of the data indicated that correlations between the following constructs are statistically and practically significant. The results show that Positive Display is statistically and positively practically significantly related (medium effect) to Interaction Control. Caring/Empathy is positively practically significantly related to Positive Display (medium effect). Furthermore the Control of Emotions (medium effect) and Emotion Management (large effect) are both positively practically significantly related to Caring/Empathy. Emotional Resilience however is negatively practically significantly related to Caring and Empathy (medium effect). Emotion Expression Recognition is positively practically significantly related to Control of Emotion (medium effect). However, both Exhaustion (medium effect) and Emotional Resilience (medium effect) are negatively practically significantly related to Control of Emotions. Engagement is positively practically significant (medium effect) to Emotion Management. Emotion Resilience (medium effect) positively correlates with Exhaustion while Engagement (medium effect) negatively correlates with Exhaustion. Engagement positively practically correlates with Resilience (medium effect). Social Support of both supervisor and co-workers positively relates to engagement to a medium effect. Principal component analysis performed on the GEIS resulted in a four-factor solution. The first factor was Caring and Empathy, which includes the willingness of an individual to help other people and understand others' feelings. The second factor was Control of Emotion, which is the ability of the individual to control and regulate emotions within themselves and others. Emotion Expression/Recognition, which is the ability of the individual to express and recognise his or her own emotional reactions, was the third factor, and the fourth was Emotion Management, which is the ability of an individual to process emotional information with regard to perception, assimilation, understanding and management of emotions. All four factors correlate with that of the GEIS originally developed by Tsaousis (2007) and accounted for 31% of the total variance in emotional intelligence. A Multiple Regression Analysis with Exhaustion as dependent variable was carried out. The results show that Emotion Work factors accounted for 2% of the total variance and Emotional Intelligence factors for 12% of the total variance. More specifically it seems that the lack of Caring and Empathy and Emotion Management predicted Exhaustion in this regard. However, when Emotional Intelligence factors were entered into the model, an increase of 10% variance was shown of the variance explained in Exhaustion. Emotion Work, Emotional Intelligence and Social Support predicted 14% of the variance explained in the level of Exhaustion by participants. A Multiple Regression analysis with Emotional Resilience as dependent variable was carried out. The results show that Emotion Work factors accounted for 6% of the total variance. More specifically; it seems that Dissonance predicted the level of Emotional Resilience. When Emotional Intelligence factors were entered into the model, an increase of 15% was shown. Caring and Empathy and Control of Emotions predicted Emotional Intelligence the best. Lastly, when Social Support factors were entered into the regression analysis, the variance explained showed an increase of 5%. Support of Family and Others predicted Emotional Resilience the best. In total, Emotion Work, Emotional Intelligence and Social Support factors explained 20% of the variance in Emotional Resilience. A Multiple Regression Analysis with Engagement as dependent variable with Emotion Work factors, Emotional Intelligence factors and Social Support as predictors of Engagement was done. Entry of Emotion Work factors at the first step of the regression analysis did not produce a statistically significant model and only accounted for 1% of the variance. However, when Emotional Intelligence factors were entered in the second step of the analysis, it accounted for approximately 7% of the variance. More specifically, it seems that Caring and Empathy predicted Engagement. When Social Support factors were entered into the third step of the analysis, an increase of 27% was found. All the Social Support factors (Social Support of Family and Others, Supervisors and Co-workers) accounted for 27% of the variance explained in Engagement. Emotion Work, Emotional Intelligence and Social Support predicted 33% of the total variance explained in the level of Engagement. Limitations within the study were identified, and recommendations were made for human resource personnel in a mining industry, as well as for future research. / Thesis (M.A. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

Human Resource personnel as part of their daily jobs provide a service to other employees within a mining industry. These service workers may experience dissonance between their actual feelings and the feelings they are expected to display. For these service workers to be more engaged at work, emotional intelligence and social support is vital. If these factors are not in place, their well-being may be in jeopardy. The objective of this research was to determine the relationship between Emotion Work, Emotional Intelligence, Well-being and Social Support of service workers in a human resource field within a mining industry. A cross-sectional survey design was used. The study population (n = 229) consisted of human resource personnel in the Limpopo and North West Province. The Greek Emotional Intelligence Scale (GEIS), Frankfurt Emotion Work Scales, Utrecht Work Engagement Scale, Oldenburg Burnout Inventory and Social Support Scale, as well as a biographical questionnaire, were used as measuring instruments. Cronbach alpha coefficients, factor analysis, inter-item correlation coefficients, Pearson product moment correlation coefficient and stepwise multiple regression analysis were used to analyse the data. An analysis of the data indicated that correlations between the following constructs are statistically and practically significant. The results show that Positive Display is statistically and positively practically significantly related (medium effect) to Interaction Control. Caring/Empathy is positively practically significantly related to Positive Display (medium effect). Furthermore the Control of Emotions (medium effect) and Emotion Management (large effect) are both positively practically significantly related to Caring/Empathy. Emotional Resilience however is negatively practically significantly related to Caring and Empathy (medium effect). Emotion Expression Recognition is positively practically significantly related to Control of Emotion (medium effect). However, both Exhaustion (medium effect) and Emotional Resilience (medium effect) are negatively practically significantly related to Control of Emotions. Engagement is positively practically significant (medium effect) to Emotion Management. Emotion Resilience (medium effect) positively correlates with Exhaustion while Engagement (medium effect) negatively correlates with Exhaustion. Engagement positively practically correlates with Resilience (medium effect). Social Support of both supervisor and co-workers positively relates to engagement to a medium effect. Principal component analysis performed on the GEIS resulted in a four-factor solution. The first factor was Caring and Empathy, which includes the willingness of an individual to help other people and understand others' feelings. The second factor was Control of Emotion, which is the ability of the individual to control and regulate emotions within themselves and others. Emotion Expression/Recognition, which is the ability of the individual to express and recognise his or her own emotional reactions, was the third factor, and the fourth was Emotion Management, which is the ability of an individual to process emotional information with regard to perception, assimilation, understanding and management of emotions. All four factors correlate with that of the GEIS originally developed by Tsaousis (2007) and accounted for 31% of the total variance in emotional intelligence. A Multiple Regression Analysis with Exhaustion as dependent variable was carried out. The results show that Emotion Work factors accounted for 2% of the total variance and Emotional Intelligence factors for 12% of the total variance. More specifically it seems that the lack of Caring and Empathy and Emotion Management predicted Exhaustion in this regard. However, when Emotional Intelligence factors were entered into the model, an increase of 10% variance was shown of the variance explained in Exhaustion. Emotion Work, Emotional Intelligence and Social Support predicted 14% of the variance explained in the level of Exhaustion by participants. A Multiple Regression analysis with Emotional Resilience as dependent variable was carried out. The results show that Emotion Work factors accounted for 6% of the total variance. More specifically; it seems that Dissonance predicted the level of Emotional Resilience. When Emotional Intelligence factors were entered into the model, an increase of 15% was shown. Caring and Empathy and Control of Emotions predicted Emotional Intelligence the best. Lastly, when Social Support factors were entered into the regression analysis, the variance explained showed an increase of 5%. Support of Family and Others predicted Emotional Resilience the best. In total, Emotion Work, Emotional Intelligence and Social Support factors explained 20% of the variance in Emotional Resilience. A Multiple Regression Analysis with Engagement as dependent variable with Emotion Work factors, Emotional Intelligence factors and Social Support as predictors of Engagement was done. Entry of Emotion Work factors at the first step of the regression analysis did not produce a statistically significant model and only accounted for 1% of the variance. However, when Emotional Intelligence factors were entered in the second step of the analysis, it accounted for approximately 7% of the variance. More specifically, it seems that Caring and Empathy predicted Engagement. When Social Support factors were entered into the third step of the analysis, an increase of 27% was found. All the Social Support factors (Social Support of Family and Others, Supervisors and Co-workers) accounted for 27% of the variance explained in Engagement. Emotion Work, Emotional Intelligence and Social Support predicted 33% of the total variance explained in the level of Engagement. Limitations within the study were identified, and recommendations were made for human resource personnel in a mining industry, as well as for future research. / Thesis (M.A. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

The purpose of this study is to analyze the relationships between stress and outcomes including organizational citizenship behavior (OCB), job satisfaction, and burnout in high-risk occupations. Moreover, how personality, emotions, coping, and leadership influence this relationship is investigated. Data were collected from 379 officers in 9 police organizations located in the Southern and Southwest United States. The primary research question addressed within this dissertation is: What is the relationship between stress and behavioral and affective outcomes in high-risk occupations as governed by coping, leadership, and crisis? The majority of the hypothesized relationships were supported, and inconsistencies center on methodological and theoretical factors. Findings indicate that occupational stressors negatively influence individuals in high-risk occupations. Moreover, crisis events exacerbate these influences. The use of adaptive coping strategies is most effective under conditions of low stress, but less so under highly stressful circumstances. Similarly, transformational leader behaviors most effectively influence how individuals in high-risk occupations are affected by lower, but not higher levels of stress. Profiles of personality characteristics and levels of emotional dissonance also influence the chosen coping strategies of those working in high-risk occupations. Prescriptively, it is important to understand the influences among the variables assessed in this study, because negative outcomes in high-risk occupations are potentially more harmful to workers and more costly to organizations. Thus, this dissertation answers the research question, but much work in this area remains to be done.

L’objectif de cette thèse est d’étudier les impacts de la régulation émotionnelle sur l’épuisement professionnel des soignants en gériatrie et plus particulièrement en mesurant les effets de la méthode Gineste et Marescotti. Lors d’une première étude, nous avons observé les états émotionnels psychologiques et physiologiques induits par deux séquences de film chez 25 sujets. Au cours de deux autres études, nous avons étudié les liens entre les régulations émotionnelles au travail, les variables de personnalité, les variables dispositionnelles et les variables contextuelles puis le rôle des régulations émotionnelles au travail dans la prédiction de la détresse psychologique chez 885 étudiants en IFSI et IFAS et dans la prédiction du burnout chez 157 professionnels en gériatrie. Enfin une quatrième étude nous a permis d’étudier les impacts de la méthode Gineste et Marescotti sur un échantillon de soignants en gériatrie. Les résultats montrent que la dissonance émotionnelle génère un stress signalé par une augmentation de la fréquence cardiaque. Le jeu en surface et le jeu en profondeur dépendent à la fois des caractéristiques de personnalité, des stratégies de régulations émotionnelles dispositionnelles et des prescriptions internes et externes, mais pas des stratégies de coping. De plus, le travail émotionnel contribue réellement à prédire le burnout mais pas la détresse psychologique. Enfin, la méthode agit sur les professionnels formés et satisfaits et plus spécifiquement sur le coping émotionnel, le jeu en surface, la demande psychologique, le burnout et le conflit de valeurs. La satisfaction associée à la capacité à mettre en œuvre la formation influence le burnout. / The objective of this thesis is to study the impact of emotion regulation on burnout in geriatric nursing, especially in measuring the effects of Gineste and Marescotti method. In a first study we observed the psychological and physiological emotional states induced by two movie clips in 25 subjects. In two other studies we investigated the relationship between emotional regulation at work, personality variables , dispositional variables and contextual variables and the role of emotional regulation at work in the prediction of psychological distress among 885 students IFSI and IFAS and the prediction of burnout among 157 professionals in geriatrics. Finally, a fourth study, we study the impacts of Gineste and Marescotti method on a sample of geriatric caregivers. The results show that emotional dissonance creates a stress indicated by an increase in heart rate. The surface acting and deep acting depend on both the characteristics of personality, emotional regulation strategies dispositional and internal and external requirements but not coping strategies. In addition, the emotional labour actually helps predict burnout but not psychological distress. Finally, the method is trained and satisfied on the level of emotional coping professionals, surface acting, psychological demand, burnout and conflict of values. Satisfaction associated with the ability to implement training influences burnout.

Thesis (M.A. (Human Resource Management))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.