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In South Africa, the levels of unemployment and poverty are extremely high and these are two of South Africa’s most pressing problems. Over the past 28 years several major programmes have been initiated in South Africa to counter unemployment and poverty. Between 1980 and 1994, the former government spent billions of Rands on large-scale development programmes with the stated objective of using labour-intensive methods during the provision of physical infrastructure, to create employment and alleviate poverty. However, this did not solve the unemployment problem. Since 1994 the African National Congress (ANC) government has implemented large-scale programmes with similar objectives to those before 1994. After an analysis of the theoretical premises and implementation of labour-intensive public works programmes in Africa, the thesis critically evaluated several pre - and post - 1994 large-scale development programmes in South Africa. Major conclusions are that very little sustainable employment was created and there was no long-term programme approach to address poverty alleviation. Furthermore, lessons that could have been learnt from pre – 1994 have not been applied in the post 1994 period. Shortcomings in programme planning and implementation of large-scale development programmes in South Africa still exist. Another major conclusion is that the pre-1994 lessons were not taken into considerations in the post-1994 programme planning and implementation. Based on the research, the author has derived a six phase Programme Management Framework for Development Programmes. This framework embodies a long-term programme management approach to the planning and implementation of large-scale, labour-intensive development programmes.

Unemployment within the South African economy has indicated to be a prominent issue with an official unemployment rate of 25.2% in the year 2013 (Statistics South Africa, 2013). The South African government released the National Growth Path that is primarily focused on creating stable economic growth, in order to create jobs as well as eradicate inequality. This is followed by the Industrial Policy Action Plan 2 (IPAP2) document which includes a policy package to facilitate the specific industries that are identified for job creation (DTI, 2012). Thus, employment creation has become a real concern within the South African context. The highest percentage of total employment has remained within the services industry since 2004, at a rate above 60%. This is double the combined employment within agriculture and industry, with agriculture at 5% and industry at 25% of total employment. Thus the services industry has contributed to the highest amount of employment in South Africa. The exports of services have grown consistently since the year 2004. The largest exporter within the services industry is the travel sector, with substantial exports which peaked at 9 billion dollars in 2013. When analysing the remaining service sectors within the South African economy, it indicates that there can be a greater deal of growth in exports, with the majority of service sectors exporting less than 1 billion dollars. Export expansion can be a basis to growth in employment creation, if policy can specifically be focused towards it. Because of the demand for methods and strategy for employment creation, this study reviewed the literature regarding the effects of export expansion, as well as research methods to identify labour intensive sectors and their spill-over effects. Studies show that the increases in exports have a predominantly positive effect on employment. Furthermore, these studies also found prominent inter-linkages of services sectors within the economy. The aim of this study was to determine the most employment-intensive services sectors and their linkages with other sectors within the South African economy, in order to make recommendations for policy makers towards sustainable economic growth and job creation in the services sector. The Social Accounting Matrix (SAM) used in this study model generally explains through a general table of a region or nation, by listing the regional or national economy accounting data within a square table. Thus the main goal of the SAM model was to form a comprehensive economic-wide database, which included information about all the productive activities in the economy, as well as incorporating unproductive institutions and markets, such as capital markets, factor markets, government, households and the rest of the world. The above model can thus be used to determine the link between a specific sectors expansion and the labour intensity of that sector. Furthermore, the model is not only limited to measure labour intensity, but it can also measure the specific GDP and production spill-over effects for a specific sector within the economy. Therefore, the study could analyse the spill-over effects of specific services sectors, as well as the possible employment effect it could have throughout the South African economy. The results of the study could then also be used as a strategy for export expansion and employment creation. There is currently no policy focused strategy for the services industry, which could become beneficial. The first step for the empirical analysis was to identify the services sectors which are tradable/ exportable. The following SAM services sectors are more tradable/ exportable than others in commercial terms, and thus they will be used in the analysis of this study: - Building and Construction - Trade - Accommodation - Communication - Finance and Insurance - Real Estate - Business Services - Community, Social and Personal Services In the second part of the study, the objective was to determine the most employment-intensive services sectors and its linkages with other sectors within the South African economy, in order to make recommendations for policy makers towards sustainable economic growth and job creation in the services sector. The results of this study indicated that an increase in the exports of services in South Africa has a definite impact on employment in the following sectors: - Production o Accommodation, Real Estate and Building and Construction - GDP o Accommodation, Real Estate and Building and Construction - Labour o Community, Social and Personal Services, Accommodation, and Business Services / MCom (International Trade), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Unemployment within the South African economy has indicated to be a prominent issue with an official unemployment rate of 25.2% in the year 2013 (Statistics South Africa, 2013). The South African government released the National Growth Path that is primarily focused on creating stable economic growth, in order to create jobs as well as eradicate inequality. This is followed by the Industrial Policy Action Plan 2 (IPAP2) document which includes a policy package to facilitate the specific industries that are identified for job creation (DTI, 2012). Thus, employment creation has become a real concern within the South African context. The highest percentage of total employment has remained within the services industry since 2004, at a rate above 60%. This is double the combined employment within agriculture and industry, with agriculture at 5% and industry at 25% of total employment. Thus the services industry has contributed to the highest amount of employment in South Africa. The exports of services have grown consistently since the year 2004. The largest exporter within the services industry is the travel sector, with substantial exports which peaked at 9 billion dollars in 2013. When analysing the remaining service sectors within the South African economy, it indicates that there can be a greater deal of growth in exports, with the majority of service sectors exporting less than 1 billion dollars. Export expansion can be a basis to growth in employment creation, if policy can specifically be focused towards it. Because of the demand for methods and strategy for employment creation, this study reviewed the literature regarding the effects of export expansion, as well as research methods to identify labour intensive sectors and their spill-over effects. Studies show that the increases in exports have a predominantly positive effect on employment. Furthermore, these studies also found prominent inter-linkages of services sectors within the economy. The aim of this study was to determine the most employment-intensive services sectors and their linkages with other sectors within the South African economy, in order to make recommendations for policy makers towards sustainable economic growth and job creation in the services sector. The Social Accounting Matrix (SAM) used in this study model generally explains through a general table of a region or nation, by listing the regional or national economy accounting data within a square table. Thus the main goal of the SAM model was to form a comprehensive economic-wide database, which included information about all the productive activities in the economy, as well as incorporating unproductive institutions and markets, such as capital markets, factor markets, government, households and the rest of the world. The above model can thus be used to determine the link between a specific sectors expansion and the labour intensity of that sector. Furthermore, the model is not only limited to measure labour intensity, but it can also measure the specific GDP and production spill-over effects for a specific sector within the economy. Therefore, the study could analyse the spill-over effects of specific services sectors, as well as the possible employment effect it could have throughout the South African economy. The results of the study could then also be used as a strategy for export expansion and employment creation. There is currently no policy focused strategy for the services industry, which could become beneficial. The first step for the empirical analysis was to identify the services sectors which are tradable/ exportable. The following SAM services sectors are more tradable/ exportable than others in commercial terms, and thus they will be used in the analysis of this study: - Building and Construction - Trade - Accommodation - Communication - Finance and Insurance - Real Estate - Business Services - Community, Social and Personal Services In the second part of the study, the objective was to determine the most employment-intensive services sectors and its linkages with other sectors within the South African economy, in order to make recommendations for policy makers towards sustainable economic growth and job creation in the services sector. The results of this study indicated that an increase in the exports of services in South Africa has a definite impact on employment in the following sectors: - Production o Accommodation, Real Estate and Building and Construction - GDP o Accommodation, Real Estate and Building and Construction - Labour o Community, Social and Personal Services, Accommodation, and Business Services / MCom (International Trade), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

The vast rice production in some developing Asian countries like Indonesia raises expectation on poverty alleviation and energy diversification through second generation biofuel production from rice residues, specifically rice straw. This work attempts to estimate the potential environmental and socioeconomic benefits of rice straw-to-ethanol project in Indonesia. Literature research and interviews are performed to quantify several environmental and socioeconomic indicators that are considered as the major concerns inimplementing an energy project. Assuming all the technically available rice straw in Bali is used (~244-415 kilotonne/year), ethanol production may yield gasoline replacement, lifecycle GHG savings, GDP contribution, foreign exchange savings, and employment beneficiaries of 55-93 ML/year, 140-240 millionUSD/year, 19-32 kilotonne of CO2-equivalent/year, 100-180 million USD/year, and 2,200-3,700 persons, respectively. Sensitivity analyses are done for some parameters, showing that ethanol yield, total capital cost, feed-in-tariff for electricity, and imported crude oil price are the major factors affecting the viability of rice straw-to-ethanol project in Indonesia. / Harnessing agricultural feedstock and residues for bioethanol production - towards a sustainable biofuel strategy in Indonesia

Ghana, like many African countries, is plagued with unemployment, poverty and annual trade deficits. Unemployment and poverty have led to a socio-economic breakdown. They are believed to be among the causes that led to the 1994 Rwanda genocide. Despite the abundance of an unemployed labor force, Ghana continues to depend on imported equipment, costing $174 million annually for its earthmoving and construction activities. In 1986, the Government of Ghana, the World Bank, the International Labor Organization and the United Nations Development Program introduced labor-based road rehabilitation program in Ghana to help create more jobs and reduce the high unemployment and poverty incidence. The program has not been patronized due to the casual labor usage and labor organizational and management problems. This research formulates the Family-Based Labor Management (FBLM) concept (also referred to as the HPWT-FBLM concept) by incorporating High Performance Work Team (HPWT), the Ghana Family System, and Roles and Responsibilities Matrix (RRM) concepts to make the program more attractive to labor and management. The FBLM concept would equip local contractors with the managerial skills to increase average monthly production from 1.33km to between 4km and 6km gaining competitive advantage over the 3.07km monthly production of the equipment-intensive contractor. Since the HPWT-FBLM concept has not been used, the related concepts HPWT and RRM concepts are used to validate the newly formulated recruitment, training, work method, communication and reward strategies. When adopted, the HPWT-FBLM concept would annually invest 10% of the $174 million for five years and yield employment increase of 23,000-34,000 the first year, growing to a total of 116,000-170,000 in five years. This concept will help reduce import deficit, conserve foreign exchange, and develop a pool of skilled workers and managers in Ghana. It has the potential of boosting the Ghanaian manufacturing industry for making hand-tools in lieu of purchasing imported equipment. The HPWT-FBLM concept can be adopted by the agriculture and building construction and other industries in Ghana that use large supplies of unskilled and semi-skilled labor. / Ph. D.

Este trabalho teve como objetivo pesquisar, à luz do pensamento de Celso Furtado e de especialistas, como Bautista Vidal, as políticas substitutivas energéticas, em especial as relativas à produção de álcool. Nesse contexto, enfoca um estudo de caso na Região Noroeste do Rio Grande do Sul, sobre pequenas propriedades rurais que atuam de modo cooperado para produzir em sistemas integrados, alimentos, energias renováveis e serviços ambientais. Pretende-se mostrar a importância desse modelo, não só para os municípios onde atuam as cooperativas estudadas, como também sua aplicabilidade em outros municípios, de acordo com as suas especificidades regionais, para atender a crescente demanda por um combustível limpo e renovável, dentre eles o álcool, bem como para diminuir as desigualdades regionais, ampliar a produção de alimentos e ainda, para criar mecanismos que possibilitem ao pequeno produtor rural deixar de ser apenas fornecedor de matéria prima. / This work intends to research - according the views of Celso Furtado and Bauptista Vidal the alternative policies of energy particularly to alcohol output. Emphasis is put on the Northwest Region of Rio Grande do Sul where cooperative small-sized proprietors produce integrated activities with food, crops, renewable energies and environment services. It is an attempt to show the importance of this model to countries and cooperative activities. It respects their local particularities in order to satisfy a growing demand for clean and renewable combustible, specially alcohol, contributing to reduce regional inequalities. It allows to expand food output and engendering mechanisms to promote small rural producer beyond the condition of raw materials supplier.

Este trabalho teve como objetivo pesquisar, à luz do pensamento de Celso Furtado e de especialistas, como Bautista Vidal, as políticas substitutivas energéticas, em especial as relativas à produção de álcool. Nesse contexto, enfoca um estudo de caso na Região Noroeste do Rio Grande do Sul, sobre pequenas propriedades rurais que atuam de modo cooperado para produzir em sistemas integrados, alimentos, energias renováveis e serviços ambientais. Pretende-se mostrar a importância desse modelo, não só para os municípios onde atuam as cooperativas estudadas, como também sua aplicabilidade em outros municípios, de acordo com as suas especificidades regionais, para atender a crescente demanda por um combustível limpo e renovável, dentre eles o álcool, bem como para diminuir as desigualdades regionais, ampliar a produção de alimentos e ainda, para criar mecanismos que possibilitem ao pequeno produtor rural deixar de ser apenas fornecedor de matéria prima. / This work intends to research - according the views of Celso Furtado and Bauptista Vidal the alternative policies of energy particularly to alcohol output. Emphasis is put on the Northwest Region of Rio Grande do Sul where cooperative small-sized proprietors produce integrated activities with food, crops, renewable energies and environment services. It is an attempt to show the importance of this model to countries and cooperative activities. It respects their local particularities in order to satisfy a growing demand for clean and renewable combustible, specially alcohol, contributing to reduce regional inequalities. It allows to expand food output and engendering mechanisms to promote small rural producer beyond the condition of raw materials supplier.

Project objectives are no longer being determined in terms of time, cost and quality only. Other factors such as employment creation, transfer of skills, use of small medium and micro enterprises (SMMEs) and community empowerment now play a role in determining project objectives and success. Is project management, applied with the traditional building procurement system the best method to achieve these unique project objectives ? Some have argued that construction management, as a building procurement system, could be the most suitable method to use in the South African situation considering the unique project objectives described above. This research proposed to determine whether the use of construction management, as a building procurement system, can improve the attainment of client objectives in the South African construction industry. Based on the problem statement, the following hypothesis was formulated: "The use of construction management as a building procurement system on construction projects with a strong focus on the empowerment of previously disadvantaged individuals (PDIs) and affirmable business enterprises (ABEs) leads to an improved attainment of project / client objectives." It was further broken down as follows: * The choice of building procurement system does influence project success or failure. * Construction management can improve the attainment of client objectives on certain projects. * Construction management in South Africa has not been widely used and understood hence may have failed in its use thus far. * Construction management can be applied successfully on certain projects by following international best practices. The problem was resolved firstly through a literature survey, followed by an empirical survey. Respondents targeted for the empirical survey were clients or developers and project managers based in the following provinces: Gauteng, KwaZulu Natal and the Western Cape. Literature reviewed indicates that this procurement system leads to cost savings and shorter project duration, thereby resulting in improved client satisfaction levels. Furthermore, it can also be of benefit as it allows affirmative construction to take place. This may be of particular interest to public sector clients. Construction management has been widely used in the United States of America and the United Kingdom. In certain instances, it achieved good results, whereas in other instances the results were disastrous. Authors such as Kweku et al (1987) argue that this is due to poor implementation. In the light of this, it is important to note that this method has its shortcomings and can be poorly implemented resulting in unsuccessful projects. Ensuring that "recipes of success" identified herein are applied, can go a long way to ensuring that the system is properly applied and that favourable results are achieved. In theory, therefore, construction management can lead to more satisfied clients as it can achieve better results in terms of their objectives, when properly implemented. Based on literature reviewed and the empirical survey findings, it is concluded that the hypothesis is proven. Based on the literature review, empirical survey and conclusions reached, It is recommended that: q Private sector and public sector clients (such as the National Department of Public Works), consider the use of construction management as a building procurement system on some of their future projects, especially projects with a strong empowerment component. q Clients select suitably qualified and experienced individuals (such as construction project managers) and/or organisations (such as established building contractors) to perform construction management services on their projects. q Existing best construction management practices are applied on construction management projects. q Further research be undertaken on, inter alia, the role of the construction manager and the project manager on construction management projects, the development of emerging contractors on construction management projects and the development of guidelines for the implementation of construction management projects in South Africa. / Thesis (MSc (Project management))--University of Pretoria, 2004. / Construction Economics / unrestricted

Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study addresses the sustainable development and employment creation potential of bivalve mariculture with reference to the case of Saldanha. The first section of the study looks at various theoretical perspectives relating to sustainable development. The development of modernist theory is presented, as are its shortcomings. The People-Centred Development theory is presented as an alternative theoretical perspective. This theory is relevant to the present study because it prioritises the participation of local individuals in the development process, rather than prioritising the increase of capital gain. One of the development approaches within people-centred development is the Learning Process Approach. The learning process approach provides a development model through which people-centred development can take place. The study then focuses on empirical cases. The development of four mariculture case studies from different countries and farming different organisms is then considered. The development process of these case studies is used to draw lessons on what factors affect the sustainable development of a mariculture sector. It is shown that five key factors play a role in the sustainable development of each of the four cases. The five factors are the state, the market, funding, the environment and the local community. These five factors provide a typology with which to measure the potential for the sustainable development of the bivalve mariculture sector in Saldanha. Literature on Saldanha is then reviewed, giving a background to rising unemployment in Saldanha and the need to consider the expansion of alternative sectors. This is followed by presenting the methods and results of empirical research involving the collection of primary data in Saldanha. The research methods used in conducting empirical research in Saldanha are presented. This research elicited data on bivalve mariculture employees and bivalve mariculture directors in Saldanha as well as state representatives. The key findings of this study are that the restrictive state policies on mariculture and a lack of funding are the primary limitations to the sector‟s expansion. The sector has the potential to expand by a factor of four, providing employment for over 200 households in Saldanha. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie ondersoek fokus op die volhoubare ontwikkeling en werkskeppingspotensiaal van tweekleppige marikultuur met verwysing na die geval van Saldanha. Die eerste gedeelte van die ondersoek handel oor verskillende teoretiese perspektiewe met betrekking tot volhoubare ontwikkeling. Die ontwikkeling van modernistiese teorie word aangebied, tesame met sy tekortkominge. Die Mens-Gesentreerde Ontwikkelingsraamwerk word as 'n alternatiewe teoretiese perspektief aangebied. Die mens-gesentreerde ontwikkelingsraamwerk is relevant tot die huidige ondersoek omdat dit die deelname van plaaslike individue in die ontwikkelingproses, eerder as die verhoging van kapitaalwins, vooropstel. Een van die ontwikkelingsbenaderings binne mens-gesentreerde ontwikkeling is die Leerproses Benadering. Die leerproses benadering bied 'n ontwikkelingsmodel waardeur mens-gesentreerde ontwikkeling kan plaasvind. Die leerproses benadering word dan gebruik om die ontwikkeling van ander marikultuur gevalleondersoeke te bespreek. Die tweede deel van die huidige ondersoek beskou die ontwikkeling van vier marikultuur gevalleondersoeke uit verskillende lande wat met verskillende organismes boer. Die ontwikkeling van hierdie gevalleondersoeke is gebruik om lesse op te stel oor watter faktore 'n invloed op die ontwikkeling en volhoubaarheid van 'n marikultuursektor het. Dit is getoon dat die vyf belangrikste faktore wat 'n rol in die volhoubaarheid en uitbreidingspotensiaal van elk van die gevalle gespeel het die staat, die mark, finansiering, die omgewing en die plaaslike gemeenskap behels. Hierdie vyf faktore is gebruik as 'n tipologie om die volhoubaarheid en uitbreidingspotensiaal van die tweekleppige marikultuursektor in Saldanha te meet. Die geval van Saldanha word eerstens in die literatuur aangebied vir 'n agtergrond oor stygende werkloosheid in Saldanha en die noodsaaklikheid om die uitbreiding van alternatiewe sektore te oorweeg. Derdens is primêre navorsing oor Saldanha se tweekleppige marikultuursektor onderneem. Data is versamel vanaf werknemers, direkteure en staatsverteenwoordigers. Die belangrikste bevindings van hierdie ondersoek is dat die beperkende staatsbeleid oor marikultuur en 'n gebrek aan fondse die primêre beperkings op die uitbreiding van die sektor is. Die sektor het die potensiaal om met 'n faktor van vier uit te brei. Teen hierdie grootte sal meer as 200 huishoudings in Saldanha 'n inkomste hê.