No / The skin produces bioactive lipids that participate in physiological and pathological states, including homeostasis, induction, propagation, and resolution of inflammation. However, comprehension of the cutaneous lipid complement, and contribution to differing roles of the epidermal and dermal compartments, remains incomplete. We assessed the profiles of eicosanoids, endocannabinoids, N-acyl ethanolamides, and sphingolipids, in human dermis, epidermis, and suction blister fluid. We identified 18 prostanoids, 12 hydroxy-fatty acids, 9 endocannabinoids and N-acyl ethanolamides, and 21 non-hydroxylated ceramides and sphingoid bases, several demonstrating significantly different expression in the tissues assayed. The array of dermal and epidermal fatty acids was reflected in the lipid mediators produced, whereas similarities between lipid profiles in blister fluid and epidermis indicated a primarily epidermal origin of suction blister fluid. Supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids ex vivo showed that their action is mediated through perturbation of existing species and formation of other anti-inflammatory lipids. These findings demonstrate the diversity of lipid mediators involved in maintaining tissue homeostasis in resting skin and hint at their contribution to signaling, cross-support, and functions of different skin compartments. Profiling lipid mediators in biopsies and suction blister fluid can support studies investigating cutaneous inflammatory responses, dietary manipulation, and skin diseases lacking biomarkers and therapeutic targets.

This thesis represents the culmination of the main project I have undertaken during my master's program. It is important to note that additional data collection and analysis were conducted by intern students under my supervision, which will be integrated into a forthcoming manuscript where I will be credited as the first co-author. Due to space and focus limitations of this thesis, these additional findings have not been included here. / La famille des canaux potassiques à rectification entrante (Kir), exprimée de manière ubiquitaire, repolarise et maintient le gradient de tension à travers les membranes des cellules excitables et non-excitables. Les canaux Kir sont fortement régulés par divers lipides membranaires, tels que les phosphoinositides, les phospholipides anioniques secondaires, le cholestérol, le Coenzyme A (CoA) à longue chaîne et l'acide arachidonique. Kir2.1 est fortement exprimé dans le tissu musculaire strié des cellules cardiaques auriculaires et ventriculaires. Il joue un rôle essentiel dans la régulation du potentiel de membrane au repos et de la contraction des cellules musculaires cardiaques et lisses en générant le courant K+ à rectification entrante (IK1). (IK1). Les mutations de Kir2.1 avec perte de fonction sont à l'origine du syndrome d'Andersen-Tawil (ATS). Par conséquent, l'altération de la fonction de Kir2.1 est un déterminant essentiel au bon fonctionnement du cœur. Les endocannabinoïdes sont une classe spéciale de lipides naturellement exprimés dans une variété de cellules, y compris les cellules cardiaques, neuronales et immunitaires. Le système endocannabinoïde, y compris les récepteurs cannabinoïdes (CBR), agit comme un système de réponse au stress qui s'active. Des études menées chez l'animal et chez l'homme suggèrent que la modulation pharmacologique de ce système pourrait représenter une nouvelle approche thérapeutique. Cependant, ces dernières années, il est devenu clair que si les endocannabinoïdes peuvent déclencher des changements de signalisation en aval par l'intermédiaire des CBR, ils peuvent également interagir directement avec les canaux ioniques indépendamment des CBR pour moduler la fonction cellulaire. Dans cette étude, nous avons utilisé la technique de double électrode en voltage imposé pour examiner les effets d'un panel d'endocannabinoïdes sur la fonction de Kir2.1. Nous avons montré qu'un sous-ensemble d'endocannabinoïdes, mais pas tous, peut réguler la fonction de Kir2.1 à des degrés divers, indépendamment des CBR. Nous avons également démontré que les endocannabinoïdes peuvent également réguler les protéines mutées menant à l'ATS (G144S et V302M). Nous avons également observé que l'effet des endocannabinoïdes n'est pas conservé parmi les membres de la famille Kir, avec des différences observées entre les canaux Kir2.1, Kir4.1 et Kir7.1. Ces résultats pourraient avoir des implications plus larges pour les fonctions des cellules cardiaques, neuronales et immunitaires. Mots clés : Kir2.1, Endocannabinoïdes, LQT7, Rectification entrante, G144S, Kir7.1, Kir4.1 / The ubiquitously expressed family of inward rectifier potassium (Kir) channels repolarizes and maintains the voltage gradient across excitable and non-excitable cell membranes. Kir channels are highly regulated by various membrane lipids, such as phosphoinositides, secondary anionic phospholipids, cholesterol, long chain acyl- Coenzyme A (CoA), and arachidonic acid. Kir2.1 is highly expressed in striated muscle tissue of atrial and ventricular heart cells. It is critically involved in regulating the resting membrane potential and contraction of cardiac and smooth muscle cells through the generation of the current IK1. Loss-of-function mutations in Kir2.1 cause Andersen-Tawil syndrome (ATS). Therefore, altered Kir2.1 function is a critical determinant of proper heart function. Endocannabinoids are a special class of lipids that are naturally expressed in a variety of cells, including cardiac, neuronal, and immune cells. The endocannabinoid system, including cannabinoid receptors (CBRs), acts as a stress response system that is activated. Studies in both animals and humans suggest that pharmacological modulation of this system might represent a novel approach to treatment. However, in recent years, it is becoming clear that while endocannabinoids can trigger downstream signaling changes through CBRs, they can also directly interact with ion channels independently of CBRs to modulate cellular function. In this study, we used the electrophysiology technique called two-electrode-voltage-clamp (TEVC) in combination with mutagenesis studies to examine the effects of a panel of endocannabinoids on the function of Kir2.1. We showed that a subset of endocannabinoids, but not all, can regulate the Kir2.1 function to varying degrees, independent of CBRs. We also demonstrated that endocannabinoids can also regulate mutants linked with ATS (G144S and V302M). We also observed that the effect of endocannabinoids is not conserved among Kir family members, with differences observed between Kir2.1, Kir4.1 and Kir7.1 channels. These findings could have broader implications for cardiac, neuronal, and immune cell functions. Key words: Kir2.1, Endocannabinoids, LQT7, Inward rectification, G144S, Kir7.1, Kir4.1

O sistema endocanabinoide é composto por ligantes endógenos, enzimas responsáveis pela síntese e degradação desses ligantes, além de receptores específicos. As duas principais moléculas endógenas, anandamida (AEA) e 2- araquidonilglicerol (2-AG), após sintetizadas, são difundidos para a fenda sináptica e agem retrogradamente em receptores canabinóides do tipo 1 e/ou 2 (CB1 e CB2, respectivamente). A ação da AEA termina após processo de internalização seguido por hidrólise através da enzima FAAH (fatty acid amid hydrolase; amidohidrolase de acidos graxos), presente no neurônio pós-sináptico. O 2-AG, por sua vez, é degradado pela MAGL (monoacilglicerol lipase), localizada pré-sinapticamente. O receptor CB1 modula negativamente a liberação de diversos neurotransmissores no sistema nervoso central. A participação dos endocanabinoides é amplamente descrita em diversas estruturas cerebrais envolvidas na expressão de respostas relacionadas aos comportamentos de ansiedade e medo, tendo seus efeitos mediados principalmente por CB1 e CB2. Entretanto, o papel dos endocanabinoides em algumas estruturas ainda não está completamente elucidado. Dentre essas, destaca-se o Núcleo Leito da Estria Terminal (NLET), uma estrutura límbica com importante papel na integração de informações associadas com controle autonômico, endócrino e comportamental durante situações aversivas. Há poucas evidências da presença e do envolvimento do sistema endocanabinoide no NLET sobre a modulação de respostas de ansiedade. Desta forma, o objetivo do presente estudo foi avaliar o envolvimento do sistema endocanabinoide presente no NLET na modulação de respostas aversivas inata e aprendida. Para isso ratos Wistar (240g - 270g) foram implantados com cânulas guia bilateralmente no NLET para administração de drogas. Foram utilizados: veículo (DMSO 10%), antagonista de receptores CB1, o AM251 nas doses de 0,1 a 0,3 nmol/100nL e um inibidor da enzima FAAH, URB597 nas doses de 0,01 e 0,1 nmol/100nL. Cinco dias após a cirurgia estereotáxica, os animais foram submetidos ao teste de resposta inata do Labirinto em cruz elevado por 5 minutos. Avaliou-se o número de entradas e o tempo gasto nos braços abertos e fechados. Dois a três dias após, os animais foram submetidos ao protocolo do medo condicionado ao contexto, realizado em 3 dias consecutivos. No dia do teste, respostas comportamentais (tempo de congelamento) e autonômicas (Pressão arterial média; Frequência cardíaca, e Temperatura cutânea da cauda) foram continuamente avaliadas durante 10 min. Nossos resultados demonstraram que o bloqueio ou ativação de receptores CB1 no NLET não alterou as respostas de medo inato. Entretanto, no medo aprendido, o antagonismo de receptores CB1 no NLET aumentou o componente comportamental e pressórico. Ainda, a inibição da FAAH no NLET, via CB1, diminuiu o componente comportamental e pressórico da resposta emocional condicionada. Desta maneira, podemos sugerir que o sistema endocanabinoide presente no NLET modula respostas de medo aprendido, sem intervir nas respostas de medo inato. / The cannabinoid system is composed by two main endogenous ligands, enzymes responsible for synthesis and degradation of these ligands, and specific receptors. The two main endogenous molecules, anandamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2- AG), after synthesized post-synaptically, are released into the synaptic cleft, where they activate cannabinoid receptors type 1 and 2 (CB1 and CB2, respectively). AEA action terminates after internalization followed by enzymatic hydrolysis via FAAH (fatty acid amid hydrolase) located in the postsynaptic neuron. Meanwhile, 2-AG is degraded presynaptically by MAGL (monoacylglycerol lipase). CB1 receptor negatively modulates the release of several neurotransmitters in central nervous system. The endocannabinoid system is widely present in several brain structures involved on fear expression and anxiety-related responses, mostly mediated via CB1 and CB2 receptors. Nevertheless, the role of the endocannabinoids system role in specific brain structures is not yet completely elucidated. One structure in particular, is the Bed Nucleus of Stria Terminales (BNST), which is a limbic structure responsible for integration of autonomic, neuroendocrine and behavioral information during aversive situations. There is little evidence about the presence and involvement of endocannabinoid system in the BNST on anxiety responses modulation. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to evaluate the role of the endocannabinoid system in the BNST on the modulation of innate and learned aversive responses. Male Wistar rats (240 - 270g) were submitted to stereotaxic surgery for bilateral guide cannula implantation directed to the BNST, for drug administration. Animals received local injections of vehicle, AM251 (CB1-antagonist; 0,1 - 0,3 nmol/100nL), URB597 (an inhibitor of FAAH; 0,01 - 0,1 nmol/100nL). Five days after the stereotaxic surgery, animals were submitted to the innate response test, the elevated plus maze, for 5 minutes. The percentage of entries and time spent in open and the number of enclosed arms entries were analyzed. After two to three days, animals were submitted to the contextual fear conditioning protocol, performed in three consecutive days. On test day, behavioral (freezing) and autonomic responses (mean arterial pressure, heart rate and tail cutaneous temperature) were recorded for 10 min. Our data suggest that after CB1 receptors blocking or activation in the BNST do not promote changes in innate fear responses. However, during fear learning, CB1 receptor antagonism in the BNST increased freezing behavior and mean arterial pressure. In addition, FAAH inhibition in the BNST, via CB1, reduced freezing behavior and mean arterial pressure in the emotional conditioned response. These results suggest that endogenous cannabinoid system in the BNST can modulate defensive responses in fear learning, but not innate fear responses.

O sistema endocanabinoide é composto por ligantes endógenos, enzimas responsáveis pela síntese e degradação desses ligantes, além de receptores específicos. As duas principais moléculas endógenas, anandamida (AEA) e 2- araquidonilglicerol (2-AG), após sintetizadas, são difundidos para a fenda sináptica e agem retrogradamente em receptores canabinóides do tipo 1 e/ou 2 (CB1 e CB2, respectivamente). A ação da AEA termina após processo de internalização seguido por hidrólise através da enzima FAAH (fatty acid amid hydrolase; amidohidrolase de acidos graxos), presente no neurônio pós-sináptico. O 2-AG, por sua vez, é degradado pela MAGL (monoacilglicerol lipase), localizada pré-sinapticamente. O receptor CB1 modula negativamente a liberação de diversos neurotransmissores no sistema nervoso central. A participação dos endocanabinoides é amplamente descrita em diversas estruturas cerebrais envolvidas na expressão de respostas relacionadas aos comportamentos de ansiedade e medo, tendo seus efeitos mediados principalmente por CB1 e CB2. Entretanto, o papel dos endocanabinoides em algumas estruturas ainda não está completamente elucidado. Dentre essas, destaca-se o Núcleo Leito da Estria Terminal (NLET), uma estrutura límbica com importante papel na integração de informações associadas com controle autonômico, endócrino e comportamental durante situações aversivas. Há poucas evidências da presença e do envolvimento do sistema endocanabinoide no NLET sobre a modulação de respostas de ansiedade. Desta forma, o objetivo do presente estudo foi avaliar o envolvimento do sistema endocanabinoide presente no NLET na modulação de respostas aversivas inata e aprendida. Para isso ratos Wistar (240g - 270g) foram implantados com cânulas guia bilateralmente no NLET para administração de drogas. Foram utilizados: veículo (DMSO 10%), antagonista de receptores CB1, o AM251 nas doses de 0,1 a 0,3 nmol/100nL e um inibidor da enzima FAAH, URB597 nas doses de 0,01 e 0,1 nmol/100nL. Cinco dias após a cirurgia estereotáxica, os animais foram submetidos ao teste de resposta inata do Labirinto em cruz elevado por 5 minutos. Avaliou-se o número de entradas e o tempo gasto nos braços abertos e fechados. Dois a três dias após, os animais foram submetidos ao protocolo do medo condicionado ao contexto, realizado em 3 dias consecutivos. No dia do teste, respostas comportamentais (tempo de congelamento) e autonômicas (Pressão arterial média; Frequência cardíaca, e Temperatura cutânea da cauda) foram continuamente avaliadas durante 10 min. Nossos resultados demonstraram que o bloqueio ou ativação de receptores CB1 no NLET não alterou as respostas de medo inato. Entretanto, no medo aprendido, o antagonismo de receptores CB1 no NLET aumentou o componente comportamental e pressórico. Ainda, a inibição da FAAH no NLET, via CB1, diminuiu o componente comportamental e pressórico da resposta emocional condicionada. Desta maneira, podemos sugerir que o sistema endocanabinoide presente no NLET modula respostas de medo aprendido, sem intervir nas respostas de medo inato. / The cannabinoid system is composed by two main endogenous ligands, enzymes responsible for synthesis and degradation of these ligands, and specific receptors. The two main endogenous molecules, anandamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2- AG), after synthesized post-synaptically, are released into the synaptic cleft, where they activate cannabinoid receptors type 1 and 2 (CB1 and CB2, respectively). AEA action terminates after internalization followed by enzymatic hydrolysis via FAAH (fatty acid amid hydrolase) located in the postsynaptic neuron. Meanwhile, 2-AG is degraded presynaptically by MAGL (monoacylglycerol lipase). CB1 receptor negatively modulates the release of several neurotransmitters in central nervous system. The endocannabinoid system is widely present in several brain structures involved on fear expression and anxiety-related responses, mostly mediated via CB1 and CB2 receptors. Nevertheless, the role of the endocannabinoids system role in specific brain structures is not yet completely elucidated. One structure in particular, is the Bed Nucleus of Stria Terminales (BNST), which is a limbic structure responsible for integration of autonomic, neuroendocrine and behavioral information during aversive situations. There is little evidence about the presence and involvement of endocannabinoid system in the BNST on anxiety responses modulation. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to evaluate the role of the endocannabinoid system in the BNST on the modulation of innate and learned aversive responses. Male Wistar rats (240 - 270g) were submitted to stereotaxic surgery for bilateral guide cannula implantation directed to the BNST, for drug administration. Animals received local injections of vehicle, AM251 (CB1-antagonist; 0,1 - 0,3 nmol/100nL), URB597 (an inhibitor of FAAH; 0,01 - 0,1 nmol/100nL). Five days after the stereotaxic surgery, animals were submitted to the innate response test, the elevated plus maze, for 5 minutes. The percentage of entries and time spent in open and the number of enclosed arms entries were analyzed. After two to three days, animals were submitted to the contextual fear conditioning protocol, performed in three consecutive days. On test day, behavioral (freezing) and autonomic responses (mean arterial pressure, heart rate and tail cutaneous temperature) were recorded for 10 min. Our data suggest that after CB1 receptors blocking or activation in the BNST do not promote changes in innate fear responses. However, during fear learning, CB1 receptor antagonism in the BNST increased freezing behavior and mean arterial pressure. In addition, FAAH inhibition in the BNST, via CB1, reduced freezing behavior and mean arterial pressure in the emotional conditioned response. These results suggest that endogenous cannabinoid system in the BNST can modulate defensive responses in fear learning, but not innate fear responses.

Les neurones pyramidaux sont constamment bombardés par une activité GABAergique spontanée qui régule le comportement de la décharge neuronale. Des résultats récents ont montré que cette activité spontanée GABAergique pouvait moduler l'excitabilité mais aussi la fidélité temporelle de décharge d'un neurone définie comme sa capacité à reproduire à l'identique un patron de décharge lors de la présentation répétée d'un même stimulus. D'autre part, de nombreuses études ont caractérisé l'existence d'une plasticité à court-terme de l'activité GABAergique médiée par les endocannabinoïdes. Ce phénomène, connu sous le nom de DSI (Depolarization-induced Suppression of Inhibition) a été décrit dans de nombreuses structures comme le cervelet, le cortex ou encore l'hippocampe.Au cours de ma thèse, j'ai étudié quelles pouvaient être les conséquences fonctionnelles de la production d'endocannabinoïdes sur l'activité neuronale et en particulier sur la fidélité temporelle de la décharge. Dans un premier temps nous avons montré que le profil de décharge in vivo des cellules de lieu de l'hippocampe pouvait induire, quand il était rejoué in vitro, le phénomène de DSI. Nous avons observé ensuite que cette diminution transitoire de la transmission GABAergique était associée à une amélioration de la fidélité temporelle de la décharge.En conclusion, nos travaux suggèrent que l'activité des cellules de lieu de la région CA1 de l'hippocampe peut provoquer, par la synthèse et la libération rétrograde d'endocannabinoïdes, une diminution à court-terme de l'activité GABAergique reçue par ces cellules avec pour conséquence des modifications de la précision temporelle de la décharge neuronale. / Pyramidal neurons are constantly bombarded by spontaneous GABAergic activity that regulates their firing behaviour. Recent results have shown that this spontaneous GABAergic activity can modulate both the excitability and the temporal fidelity of action potential discharge (Caillard, 2011). Many studies have characterized the existence of short-term plasticity of GABAergic activity mediated by endocannabinoids. This phenomenon, known as DSI (Depolarization-induced Suppression of Inhibition) has been described in many brain structures such as the cerebellum, cortex or hippocampus (for review see Freund et al., 2003; Kano et al. 2009).During my PhD thesis, I have evaluated the functional consequences of the endocannabinoid production on neuronal activity and in particular on the spike-time precision of the CA1 pyramidal neurons. As a first step we have shown that the in vivo firing pattern of place cells could induce, when replayed in vitro, a decrease in spontaneous GABA release by the endocannabinoid signalling pathway. We then observed that this transient depression of GABAergic transmission improved spike-time precision of CA1 pyramidal neurons.In conclusion, our work suggests that, in the hippocampus, CA1 place cell firing can induce, following the synthesis and retrograde release of endocannabinoids, a short-term decrease in the GABAergic activity received by these cells that consequently affects their spike-time precision.

Endocannabinoids are products of phospholipid-derived arachidonic acid that regulate hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis activity. We hypothesize that differences in the quality and quantity of maternal dietary fat will modulate the neonatal phospholipid arachidonic acid content of the brain affecting the stress response via differences in endocannabinoid concentration of stress-activated brain areas. Dams were fed a 5% (C) or 300.10 fat diet rich in either n-6 (C, HF) or n-3 (HFF) fat during the perinatal period. PND4-5 HFF milk displays a reduced n-6/n-3 ratio compared to C and HF milk. PND10 hypothalamic and hippocampal PL AA levels are reduced in HFF pups relative to C and HF offspring; and predict endocannabinoid levels in a region-specific manner. In all pups pre-treated with an endocannabinoid receptor antagonist (AM251) or an inhibitor of the endocannabinoid degradative enzyme (URB597), basal and stress-induced ACTH secretion dose-dependently increased. Moreover, HFF pups exhibited a tendency towards reduced AM251 sensitivity under stressful conditions. These data suggest that the nature of perinatal dietary fat can differentially influence neonatal brain arachidonic acid levels and their endocannabinoid derivatives; and endocannabinoid signaling may be altered between diet groups since pups exhibit differences in sensitivity to endocannabinoid receptor blockade.

La malnutrition et la consommation de cannabis font partie des grands problèmes de santé publique.L'objectif de cette thèse était d’étudier les conséquences de ces facteurs externes sur les voies mésocorticolimbiques.Le système endocannabinoïde est un complexe multimoléculaire incluant les endocannabinoïdes (eCB), molécules lipidiques synthétisées à partir des oméga-3, les enzymes de synthèse et de dégradation des eCB, et les récepteurs aux cannabinoïdes de type 1 (CB1R), principale cible du cannabis. Nos travaux montrent qu’une alimentation déficiente en oméga-3, tout comme une exposition prénatale aux cannabinoïdes, altère la signalisation endocannabinoïde dans les régions étudiées. Nous avons découvert des altérations sévères du répertoire comportemental émotionnel et cognitif chez les souris déficientes en oméga-3 corrélées à des déficits spécifiques de la plasticité synaptique dépendante du complexe de signalisation mGlu5/eCB dans le PFC et le NAc. Nous avons mis en évidence une divergence sexuelle des effets à long-terme induits par une exposition prénatale aux cannabinoïdes chez la progéniture à l’âge adulte. Nous avons observé une diminution de l’interaction sociale chez les mâles mais pas chez les femelles exposés in-utero aux cannabinoïdes. Ce déficit comportemental était associé à une hyperexcitabilité des neurones pyramidaux et à l’absence spécifique de la plasticité synaptique endocannabinoïde dans le PFC des mâles. Enfin, dans nos deux modèles d’étude, la potentialisation pharmacologique du complexe macromoléculaire de signalisation mGlu5/eCB normalise les déficits synaptiques et comportementaux, ouvrant la voie sur de nouvelles cibles thérapeutiques. / Malnutrition and the use of cannabis are amongst the public’s most signficant problems. In the past decades, drastic dietary changes are accompanied by low consumption of essential omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). Cannabis is the most frequently used illicit drug by pregnant women and young women of reproductive age. This thesis aimed to study the consequences of these environmental factors on synaptic and behavioral functions of the mesocorticolimbic system, particularly the nucleus accumbens (NAc) and prefrontal cortex (PFC). The endocannabinoid system is a multimolecular complex including endocannabinoids (eCB), lipidic molecules synthesized from PUFAs, eCB synthesizing and degradating enzymes, and cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1R), the main target of cannabis. Our work shows that an omega-3 deficiency, as well as PCE, alters endocannabinoid-signaling in the areas of interest.We found severe alterations in the emotional and cognitive behavioral repertoire of omega-3 deficient mice that correlated with specific alterations in synaptic plasticity mediated by mGlu5/eCB signaling complex in PFC and NAc.We showed a sexual divergence in the long-term effects of PCE in adult offsprings. We observed a decrease in social interaction in males but not in females prenatally exposed cannabinoids. This behavioral deficit was associated with hyperexcitability of the pyramidal neurons and a specific lack of endocannabinoid synaptic plasticity in the male PFC.Finally, in our two study models, pharmacological enchancement of the mGlu5/eCB macromolecular signaling complex normalized synaptic and behavioral deficits, illuminating routes to new therapeutic targets.

Ce travail s'inscrit dans le cadre général de l'étude des mécanismes d'intégration des informations viscérales. Nous avons étudié la dépression synaptique à long terme (DLT) dans le noyau du tractus solitaire et sa modulation par le statut nutritionnel Dans la première étude, nous avons caractérisé une DLT au niveau du NTS. Cette DLT, déclenchée par la stimulation des afférences viscérales à basse fréquence, est exprimée au niveau de l’élément présynaptique. Elle met en jeu une libération d'endocannabinoïdes qui en agissant au niveau de l’élément présynaptique réduisent la probabilité de libération de glutamate. De manière surprenante l’élément postsynaptique ne semble jouer aucun rôle dans cette DLT. Elle nécessite une activation séquentielle des récepteurs NMDA, la libération d'anandamide et l'activation des récepteurs aux cannabinoïdes de type 1 (CB1) et l’activité de l’élément présynaptique. Nos résultats suggèrent que cette DLT pourrait être entièrement organisée dans le compartiment présynaptique des afférences viscérales. Dans une deuxième partie du travail, nous nous sommes intéressés à la modulation de cette DLT dépendante des endocannabinoïdes (DLT-eCBs) par le statut nutritionnel. La privation de nourriture pendant 24 h empêche l'induction de la DLT-eCBs par la stimulation des afférences viscérales. Ces effets sont mimés par l'activation des récepteurs à la ghréline au niveau du NTS. Une re-nutrition pendant 3h restaure la DLT-eCBs via l'action périphérique de la Cholécystokinine (CCK) et l'activation de la voie ERK. Au total ces travaux soulignent la forte plasticité des afférences viscérales en fonction du statut nutritionnel. / This work joins within the framework of studies about the mechanisms of integration of the visceral informations. We studied long term synaptic depression in the nucleus of tractus solitarii (NTS) and it's modulation during changes in the nutritional status. In the first study, we characterized a long-term synaptic depression (LTD) in the NTS. This LTD, triggered by low frequency stimulation of visceral afferents is expressed at the presynaptic level. It involves release of endocannabinoids that would eventually reduce glutamate release probability. Surprisingly the postsynaptic element seems to play no role in this LTD. It requires sequential activation of NMDA receptors, the release of anandamide and activation of the cannabinoids type 1 receptors (CB1) and presynaptic activation. Our results suggest that this LTD could be entirely organized at the presynaptic compartment of visceral afferents. In the second part of this work, we were interested on the modulation of this endocannabinoïds dependent long-term depression (eCBs-LTD) by the nutritional status. Food deprivation during 24 h prevents the induction of eCBs-LTD by the stimulation of visceral afferents. These effects are mimicked by the activation of ghrelin receptors in the NTS. 3 h refeeding restores the eCBs-LTD via peripheral action of cholecystokinin (CCK) and the activation of the ERK pathway. Altogether, this work emphasizes the high plasticity of visceral afferents and its regulation by the nutritional status.

Endocannabinoids are endogenous lipid mediators involved in various biological processes, and have immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory activities. Anandamide (arachidonoyl ethanolamine, AEA) and 2-arachidonoyl glycerol (2-AG) are the main representatives of this group. The endocannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2 with AEA have been found in human HaCaT keratinocytes and fibroblasts, but the metabolic pathway leading to endocannabinoid production in the skin has not been fully elucidated. This study aimed to investigate the profile of endocannabinoids and their main metabolizing enzymes in human skin cells and assess whether omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA) altered these profiles. In addition, an investigation was carried out to check whether UV radiation could stimulate the production of endocannabinoids and N-acylethanolamines (NAE) in human skin cells. For this purpose HaCaT keratinocytes and 46RB.1N fibroblast cells were treated with 10 and 50µM of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) or oleic acid (OA) in the presence or absence of UVR (15mJ/cm2). Data suggest that n-3 PUFA may both directly (by up-regulating NAPE-PLD levels) and indirectly (by decreasing FAAH levels) increased endocannabinoid and NAE levels in HaCaT keratinocytes and 46BR.IN fibroblasts. DHA treatment significantly decreased COX-2 expression in the absence of UVR and inhibited UVR-induced COX-2 overexpression in 46BR.IN fibroblasts. In contrast, DHA appeared to induce COX-2 up-regulation in the absence of UVR and did not prevent UVR induced COX-2 up-regulation in HaCaT keratinocytes. EPA appeared to induce COX-2 down-regulation in the absence of UVR and did not prevent UVR induced COX-2 up-regulation in both HaCaT keratinocytes and 46BR.IN fibroblasts. UVR did not have any significant effect on endocannabinoid and NAE biosynthesis. However, UVR induced endocannabinoid production in some experiments of this study. A clinical study was carried on 16 volunteers from two different ethnic groups and two different skin types. The purpose was to assess the effect of UVR on the serum endocannabinoids and NAE, therefore, the volunteers were subjected to multiple doses (1.3, SED/ 6 min) of UVR for 6 weeks. Data showed that UVR did not have major effect on human serum NAE in both skin phototypes II and V but increased 2-AG in human serum in both skin types but the more pronounced effect was evident in skin phototypes V rather than in skin phototypes II. Human serum docosahxaenoylethanolamide levels were found to be higher in White Caucasians group (skin phototypes II). Based on these it can be concluded that n-3 PUFA and UVR alter the endocannabinoids and NAE profile in HaCaT keratinocytes and 46BR.IN fibroblasts. In addition, results of the clinical study indicated that UVR has no major effects on serum endocannabinoids or NAE therefore, further studies are required to address this question in vivo.

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