The electricity price changes depending on the time of the day in most countries. In Sweden there is a spot price that changes every hour while China uses Time of Use (ToU) tariff. To avoid the most expensive hours this degree project investigates the feasibility of using lithium- ion batteries to shift the load of an industrial air compressor. The Depth of Discharge and the State of Charge (SoC) for the battery are analyzed to find the optimal use of the battery. Through simulations in MATLAB the degradation-curve and State of Charge were analyzed, which was further used for economics analysis. The feasibility of the system is evaluated by using payback time and Net Present Value (NPV). Results show that a battery has a slightly longer lifetime when it is working in a SoC of 50-70%, but a larger SoC is more profitable from the perspective of NPV. For the SoC of 0-100%, the NPV is about ~9683 US$. Compared to Sweden, using batteries to shift load is more profitable in China, which is mainly due to the high electricity prices. For the same air compressor, the payback time is 5 and 15 years for the investment of batteries in China and Sweden respectively.

A cana-de-açúcar é a cultura com finalidade energética mais importante do agronegócio brasileiro, por gerar muitos empregos no setor, representar uma parcela significativa do PIB agropecuário e por ser a fonte renovável de energia com maior participação na matriz energética brasileira. O sucesso de seu cultivo depende, dentre outros fatores, da realização do preparo de solo adequado para fornecer às plantas condições favoráveis de desenvolvimento, particularmente do sistema radicular. Em geral, ele é realizado a cada cinco anos e o custo de implantação do canavial, no qual ele se inclui, é alto, representando em torno de 25% desse custo. Os sistemas de preparo de solo comumente utilizados são o convencional e o reduzido, ambos mecanizados. O primeiro tem como característica práticas intensivas de mobilização do solo em camadas mais rasas, enquanto o segundo é composto por número reduzido de operações e máquinas na área e a mobilização do solo pode ser em camadas rasas ou profundas. A escolha pelo sistema de preparo de solo mais econômico e sustentável é complexa por envolver muitas variáveis. Avaliações econômica e energética têm sido uma alternativa eficiente para analisar sistemas de produção agrícola, pois fornecem indicadores financeiros e ambientais para auxiliar na tomada de decisão na adoção do sistema de preparo. Tendo em vista a importância econômica e energética da cana no cenário nacional, a influência do preparo de solo no desenvolvimento da planta e na composição dos custos operacionais, associados à carência de estudos energéticos que avaliem o sistema mecanizado do preparo profundo do solo, este trabalho teve o objetivo de analisar a viabilidade econômica e energética do sistema de preparo de solo profundo no cultivo da cana-de-açúcar em comparação ao sistema convencional. Para tal foi desenvolvido um modelo em planilha eletrônica que auxiliou na determinação dos indicadores econômicos e energéticos de cada sistema de preparo de solo. Os resultados apontaram que o sistema de preparo profundo do solo é viável do ponto de vista econômico e energético, pois apresentou custo operacional de 401,50 R$ ha-1 e demanda de energia de 2,63 GJ ha-1, respectivamente, 30% e 40% inferiores, ao sistema convencional. A análise de sensibilidade evidenciou que a capacidade de campo operacional, a potência do trator e o consumo de combustível foram os fatores de maior impacto na variação dos custos operacionais e na demanda de energia de entrada. / Sugarcane is the most of important energy crop for Brazilian agribusiness, since it propitiates many jobs, it represents a significant share of agricultural GDP and it is the renewable source of energy of higher contribution to the energy matrix. The success of its cropping depends, among other factors, of the appropriate tillage system to provide the plants favorable development conditions, particularly to the root system. Generally, it is carried out on every five years and it accounts around 25% of cropping cost. Soil tillage systems usually adopted are conventional and reduced, both mechanized. The conventional system consists of several operations in the superficial layers, while the reduced one uses less operations and soil mobilization can be in shallow or deep layers. In this latter category, the system of deep soil tillage is included if it is carried out in rows of planting. Economic and sustainable soil preparation system is complex because it involves many variables. Economic and energy assessments have been an efficient alternative to analyze agricultural production systems because it provides financial and environmental indicators for decision making on system adoption. Considering the economic and energy importance of sugarcane in the national scenario, the influence of soil preparation on the development of the plant and the composition of the operational costs, associated to the lack of energy studies that evaluate the mechanized system of deep soil preparation, this study aimed to analyze the economic and energy viability of the deep soil preparation system in sugarcane cultivation compared to the conventional system. For this purpose, a model was developed which assisted in the determination of the economic and energy indicators of each soil preparation system. The results showed that the deep soil preparation system is feasible from an economic and energy point of view, since it presented operational cost of 401.50 R$ ha-1 and energy demand of 2.63 GJ ha-1, respectively, 30% and 40% below the conventional system. Sensitivity analysis showed that the operational field capacity, the power of the tractor, the fuel consumption were the factors presented greater relevance in the variation of operating costs and the demand for input energy.

A conservação de energia, mais precisamente a eficiência energética, vem ganhando importância nos últimos anos no Brasil e no mundo em função dos impactos ambientais que o uso intensivo de energia gera ao meio ambiente e pelo fato de a oferta de energia, principalmente as derivadas de fontes não renováveis, estar se tornando cada vez mais escassa. Estudos que abordam os impactos que os ganhos de eficiência podem gerar em termos de custos e na conservação de energia e, por conseguinte, na diminuição dos efeitos da atividade industrial no meio ambiente vem ganhando importância. Este trabalho teve como motivação principal determinar o impacto da Eficiência Energética na demanda de energia da indústria brasileira. Para isso utilizaram-se duas metodologias complementares para dissertar a respeito do tema. Primeiramente, a intensidade energética foi decomposta em dois efeitos distintos, Efeito Intensidade e Efeito Estrutural. Os resultados encontrados sugerem que o Efeito Intensidade foi o principal responsável pela perda de Eficiência no consumo de energia pela indústria. Como o Efeito Intensidade é uma importante proxy para a Eficiência Energética, buscou-se determinar o impacto desta no consumo de energia pela industria brasileira. Outras variáveis também foram utilizadas para compor a função de demanda de energia, como PIB industrial, preços médios ponderados das diferentes fontes de energia e o nível de salários pagos na indústria. Os resultados encontrados sugerem que um aumento de 1% no Efeito Intensidade tem impacto de 0,297% no consumo de energia industrial. Procurou-se também neste trabalho buscar os determinantes da Eficiência Energética. Para tal, utilizou-se como variáveis explicativas a Formação Liquida de Capital Fixo como proxy dos investimento feitos pela indústria, a Utilização da Capacidade Instalada como um indicador de excesso ou de subutilização do parque industrial e por fim a Taxa de Câmbio Real, dado que a maior parte dos setores energo-intensivos industriais também se caracterizam pela forte abertura ao comércio exterior. Os resultados encontrados sugerem que o aumento na Utilização da Capacidade Instalada implica na perda de Eficiência Energética. Por outro lado, aumento na Formação Liquida de Capital Fixo contribui para a redução do Efeito Intensidade que implica aumento na utilização eficiente de energia. Concluiu-se que o aumento da Taxa de Investimento na economia, além de aumentar a Eficiência Energética na indústria, também é responsável por reduzir o consumo de energia e assim beneficiar o próprio setor industrial através da redução de custos como também toda a sociedade através dos benefícios que a redução da produção de energia pode gerar no meio ambiente e na poupança de recursos não renováveis. / The conservation of energy, specifically energy efficiency is gaining importance lately in Brazil and the world due environmental impacts that intensive use of energy generates to the environment and for the fact that the supply of energy, mainly derived from nonrenewable sources, is becoming increasingly scarce. Studies which approach the impacts that efficiency gains can generate in terms of cost and energy conservation and, therefore, to reduce the effects of industrial activity on the environment are gaining importance. This work had as its main motivation to determine the impact of energy efficiency in energy demand of Brazilian industry. For this we used two complementary methodologies to discourse on the subject. First, the energy intensity was decomposed into two distinct effects: Intensity effect and Structural effect. The results suggest that the Intensity effect was mainly responsible for the loss of efficiency in energy used by industry. As the Intensity Effect is an important proxy for the Energy Efficiency, we attempted to determine the impact of energy consumption in Brazilian industry. Other variables were also used to compose the function of energy demand, such as industrial GDP, weighted average prices of different energy sources and the level of salaries paid in the industry. The results suggest that a 1% increase in the intensity effect has an impact of 0.297% in industrial energy consumption. We also sought to pursue the determinants of Energy Efficiency. For this purpose, we used as explanatory variables the Net Fixed Capital Formation as a proxy of the investment made by the industry, the Use of Installed Capacity as an indicator of excess or industrial underused and finally the Real Exchange Rate, as most energy-intensive industrial sectors are also characterized by a strong opening to foreign trade. The results suggest that increased use of installed capacity implies the loss of energy efficiency. On the other hand, increase in Net Fixed Capital Formation contributes to the reduction of the Intensity Effect which implies an increase in the efficient use of energy. It was concluded that the increased Rate of Investment in the economy, besides increasing the Energy Efficiency in industry, is also responsible for reducing energy consumption and thus benefit the industrial sector itself by reducing costs as well as the whole society through the benefits that the reduction of energy production can have on the environment and saving non-renewable resources.

Desde o primeiro choque do petróleo, em 1973, os países têm despendido esforços para reduzir sua dependência pelo produto, produzido principalmente em regiões politicamente instáveis. Os Estados Unidos são os maiores consumidores mundiais do combustível, e cerca de 70% são destinados ao transporte. Desde o final da década de 70, o governo americano tem incentivado o uso de etanol como substituto parcial da gasolina. No entanto, o crescimento do biocombustível levantou polêmicas porque a matéria-prima utilizada na sua produção no país é o milho, o que poderia estar afetando a oferta do grão para a produção de alimentos. Dessa forma, foi aprovado em 2007 o RFS2, uma legislação que prevê o consumo mandatório de volumes crescentes de etanol até 2022, mas limita a produção a partir de milho. Os investimentos em pesquisas de combustíveis alternativos passaram a se focar no desenvolvimento de etanol de segunda geração, que utiliza material celulósico como matéria-prima. Sua viabilidade técnica já foi confirmada, mas ainda são necessárias melhorias no processo de produção para que o produto possa ser ofertado em escala comercial. Por outro lado, o Brasil tem uma indústria de etanol madura e também tem feito pesquisas na tecnologia de segunda geração. Se bem sucedida, o país tem planos de exportar o excedente de produção, e os Estados Unidos são um mercado de interesse. O objetivo desta dissertação é auxiliar na avaliação das necessidades de os Estados Unidos importarem etanol de outros países, o que pode criar uma oportunidade para o Brasil. Para isso, foi utilizada a abordagem lógico-intuitiva de construção de cenários - voltada a aspectos qualitativos - para estudar o mercado de etanol combustível nos Estados Unidos até o ano de 2022. A coleta de informações foi feita por meio da revisão bibliográfica, focada em artigos internacionais. A política energética americana e a evolução da tecnologia de segunda geração de etanol foram identificadas como as principais incertezas que devem moldar o futuro do mercado em estudo. A partir delas, foram gerados quatro cenários, nomeados como \"Filho pródigo\", \"Pais esperançosos\", \"Filho independente\" e \"Filho preterido\". Concluiu-se que, enquanto o governo americano continuar incentivando o consumo de etanol, haverá boas oportunidades de exportação do biocombustível brasileiro. Os maiores volumes são esperados em \"Pais esperançosos\". Por outro lado, caso outras alternativas energéticas sejam priorizadas, nossas exportações podem reduzir substancialmente, e o volume comercializado dependerá do preço do nosso produto em relação ao deles e à gasolina. / Since the first oil shock in 1973, countries have made efforts to reduce their dependence on the product, mainly produced in politically unstable regions. The United States is the world\'s largest consumer of the fuel, and about 70 % is allocated to transport. Since the late 70s, the U.S. government has encouraged the use of ethanol as a partial substitute for gasoline. However, the growth of the biofuel arose controversy because the raw material used for the domestic production is corn, which could be affecting the supply of the grain for food production. Thus, it was approved in 2007 the RFS2, a legislation that requires mandatory use of increasing volumes of ethanol until 2022, but limits production from corn. Investments in alternative fuels research started to focus on the development of second generation ethanol, which uses cellulosic material as feedstock. Its technical feasibility has been confirmed, but improvements are still needed in the production process so that the product can be offered on a commercial scale. On the other hand, Brazil has a mature ethanol industry and is also doing research on second-generation technology. If successful, the country plans to export the surplus production, and the United States is a market of interest. The objective of this thesis is to assist the assessment of the United States needs to import ethanol from other countries, which may create an opportunity for Brazil. The logical-intuitive approach of scenario building - focused on qualitative aspects - was used to study the market for fuel ethanol in the United States until the year 2022. Data collection was done through literature review, focused on international articles. The U.S. energy policy and developments in the technology of second generation ethanol were identified as the major uncertainties that are shaping the future of the market under study. Four scenarios were generated from these two uncertainties and named as \"Prodigal Son\", \"Hopeful parents\", \"Independent Son\" and \"Deprecated Son\". It was concluded that while the U.S. government continues to encourage the consumption of ethanol, there are good opportunities to export the Brazilian biofuel. The largest volumes are expected in \"Hopeful parents\". On the other hand, if other energy alternatives are prioritized, our exports can reduce substantially, and sales volume will depend on the price of our product relative to theirs and gasoline.

Research into energy demand in office buildings has tended to focus on building fabric or systems, or the organisation as a whole, rather than the actions or motivations of individual building occupants. This study applies an attitude-behaviour approach used more frequently with household or travel behaviours to energy demand behaviours by individual occupants in office settings. The approach is extended to include contextual factors such as behavioural control, organisational expectations and social influences. Comparisons are drawn between the office and home settings. The study took place in the offices of two local authorities, Nottingham City Council and Nottinghamshire County Council, and included a questionnaire survey (n=819), semi-structured interviews (n=9), and building surveys (n=5). Behaviours examined included switching off lights, computers and computer monitors. Lighting behaviours were reported to be carried out more frequently than computer monitor behaviours in both the office and household settings. Analysis of behaviours identified that they needed to be considered at a specific level, according to the equipment (lighting, computer monitors), setting (office, home), and triggers (finishing a task, leaving a room). The physical context of the behaviour was particularly important. Different levels of individual control over energy affected the performance of behaviours. No evidence was found to support the notion of spillover that enacting one energy demand behaviour might lead to the enactment of further energy demand behaviours, including for similar behaviours performed in different settings (e.g. the office and the home). Organisational, social and psychological/attitudinal influences on individual behaviour were also examined. Structural Equation Modelling examined influences proposed by the Theory of Planned Behaviour and Values-Beliefs-Norms Theory. Neither theory provided a strong explanation of the collected data. However, support was found for the Perceived Behavioural Control construct, while moral and value-led constructs had a small influence on behaviour. This thesis provides recommendations for practitioners and policy makers seeking to reduce individual-level energy demand in office settings, and for future research into energy use in organisational settings. Recommendations include promoting energy saving as an aspect of professionalism, characterising energy demand behaviours specifically by setting and equipment, and recognising the importance of the social aspects of shared office environments.

[pt] Esse estudo tem como objetivo efetuar previsões não condicionadas de demanda de energia elétrica no Brasil para a classe industrial entre os meses de Janeiro e Dezembro de 2010. Para tanto, verificou-se a causalidade entre as variáveis em estudo, em seguida se as mesmas eram estacionárias ou processos integrados. Posteriormente procedeu-se ao teste de co-integração, cujo intuito era determinar se as séries apresentavam alguma tendência comum ao longo do tempo. As previsões foram estimadas através do Modelo de Correção de Erros na abordagem Clássica (VAR/VEC) e Bayesiana (BVAR/BVEC) e, ao fim, efetuou-se uma análise comparativa através da média dos erros. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que a metodologia Bayesiana se fez mais acurada do que a metodologia Clássica. / [en] This thesis describes two multivariate statistical based approaches to generate unconditional monthly forecasts for the brazilian industrial electricity demand covering the lead time spanning from Jan/2010 to Dec/2010. For that, it was first checked the causality among the series involved followed by stationarity tests. It was also carried out cointegration tests to check the existence of long range trend among the series. The two approaches adopted were, respectivelly, the Classical Error Correction Vector Model (VAR/VEC) and the Bayesian counterpart (BVAR/BVEC); both modelling simultaneously the series involved in the study as a vector of time series that follow a kind of vector autoregressive structure. The results obtained with both, were compared, and, a main conclusion of the thesis, the Bayesian model produced better results, in terms of accuracy, them the Classical counterpart.

<p>The main objectives of this thesis have been to evaluate how, under which premises, and to what extent building thermal mass can contribute to reduce the net energy demand in office buildings. The thesis also assesses the potential thermal environmental benefits of utilizing thermal mass in office buildings, i.e. reduction of temperature peaks, reduction of temperature swings, and the reduction in the number of hours with excessive operative temperatures. This has been done by literature searches, and experimental and analytical assessments. This thesis mainly concerns office buildings in the Norwegian climate. However, the methods used and the results obtained from this work are transferable to other countries with similar climates and building codes.</p><p>Within the limitations of this thesis and based on the findings from all parts and papers this thesis comprises, it is shown that utilization of thermal mass in office buildings reduces the daytime peak temperature, reduces the diurnal temperature swing, decreases the number of hours with excessive temperatures, and increases the ability of a space to handle daytime heat loads. Exposed thermal mass also contributes to decrease the net cooling demand in buildings. However, thermal mass is found to have only a minor influence on the heating demand in office buildings.</p><p>The quantity of the achievements is dependent on the amount of exposed thermal mass, night ventilation strategy, and airflow rates. In addition, parameters such as set point temperatures, control ranges, occupancy patterns, daytime ventilation airflow rates, and prevailing convection regimes are influential for the achieved result. The importance of these parameters are quantified and discussed.</p> / <p>Hovedmålene med denne avhandlingen har vært å evaluere hvordan, under hvilke forutsetninger og i hvilken utstrekning termisk masse kan bidra til å redusere netto energibehov i kontorbygninger. Avhandlingen vurderer også hvilke potensielle fordeler termisk masse har for det termiske inneklimaet, dvs. reduksjon av maksimumstemperatur, temperatursvingninger og antall timer med overtemperaturer. Disse undersøkelsene er gjort gjennom søk i litteraturen, feltstudier og analytiske metoder. Avhandlingen omfatter i hovedsak kontorbygninger under norske forhold, men metodene og resultatene er overførbare til andre land med sammenlignbare klimatiske forhold og byggeskikk.</p><p>Innenfor avgrensningene gjort i avhandlingen og basert funnene i de ulike delene og artiklene avhandlingen består av, er det vist at utnyttelse av termisk masse i kontorbygg bidrar til å redusere netto energibehov. Termisk masse reduserer også maksimumstemperaturen dagtid, demper temperaturvariasjonene over døgnet og reduserer antall timer med overtemperaturer. Utnyttelse av termisk masse bidrar også til at rom kan tåle en høyere intern varmelast enn lette rom uten at dette går ut over den termiske komforten. Termisk masse har imidlertid liten betydning for energibehovet for oppvarming i kontorbygg.</p><p>Gevinsten med å utnytte termisk masse avhenger av tilgjengeligheten av eksponerte tunge materialer, strategi for nattventilasjon og ventilasjonsluftmengder. I tillegg innvirker parametere som settpunkttemperaturer, dødbånd og kontrollintervaller for ventilasjonen og bruksmønster. Innvirkningen av disse parametrene er diskutert og kvantifisert.</p>

The main objectives of this thesis have been to evaluate how, under which premises, and to what extent building thermal mass can contribute to reduce the net energy demand in office buildings. The thesis also assesses the potential thermal environmental benefits of utilizing thermal mass in office buildings, i.e. reduction of temperature peaks, reduction of temperature swings, and the reduction in the number of hours with excessive operative temperatures. This has been done by literature searches, and experimental and analytical assessments. This thesis mainly concerns office buildings in the Norwegian climate. However, the methods used and the results obtained from this work are transferable to other countries with similar climates and building codes. Within the limitations of this thesis and based on the findings from all parts and papers this thesis comprises, it is shown that utilization of thermal mass in office buildings reduces the daytime peak temperature, reduces the diurnal temperature swing, decreases the number of hours with excessive temperatures, and increases the ability of a space to handle daytime heat loads. Exposed thermal mass also contributes to decrease the net cooling demand in buildings. However, thermal mass is found to have only a minor influence on the heating demand in office buildings. The quantity of the achievements is dependent on the amount of exposed thermal mass, night ventilation strategy, and airflow rates. In addition, parameters such as set point temperatures, control ranges, occupancy patterns, daytime ventilation airflow rates, and prevailing convection regimes are influential for the achieved result. The importance of these parameters are quantified and discussed. / Hovedmålene med denne avhandlingen har vært å evaluere hvordan, under hvilke forutsetninger og i hvilken utstrekning termisk masse kan bidra til å redusere netto energibehov i kontorbygninger. Avhandlingen vurderer også hvilke potensielle fordeler termisk masse har for det termiske inneklimaet, dvs. reduksjon av maksimumstemperatur, temperatursvingninger og antall timer med overtemperaturer. Disse undersøkelsene er gjort gjennom søk i litteraturen, feltstudier og analytiske metoder. Avhandlingen omfatter i hovedsak kontorbygninger under norske forhold, men metodene og resultatene er overførbare til andre land med sammenlignbare klimatiske forhold og byggeskikk. Innenfor avgrensningene gjort i avhandlingen og basert funnene i de ulike delene og artiklene avhandlingen består av, er det vist at utnyttelse av termisk masse i kontorbygg bidrar til å redusere netto energibehov. Termisk masse reduserer også maksimumstemperaturen dagtid, demper temperaturvariasjonene over døgnet og reduserer antall timer med overtemperaturer. Utnyttelse av termisk masse bidrar også til at rom kan tåle en høyere intern varmelast enn lette rom uten at dette går ut over den termiske komforten. Termisk masse har imidlertid liten betydning for energibehovet for oppvarming i kontorbygg. Gevinsten med å utnytte termisk masse avhenger av tilgjengeligheten av eksponerte tunge materialer, strategi for nattventilasjon og ventilasjonsluftmengder. I tillegg innvirker parametere som settpunkttemperaturer, dødbånd og kontrollintervaller for ventilasjonen og bruksmønster. Innvirkningen av disse parametrene er diskutert og kvantifisert.

Previous studies in building energy assessmnet have made it clear that the largest potential energy efficiency improvements are conected to the retrofitting of existing buildings. But, lack of information about the building stock and associated modelling tools is one of the barriers to assessment of energy efficiency strategies in the building stocks. Therefore, a methodology has been developed to describe any building stock by the means of archetype buildings.  The aim has been to assess the effects of energy saving measures. The model which is used for the building energy simulation is called:  Energy, Carbon and Cost Assessment for Buildings Stocks (ECCABS). This model calculated the net energy demand aggregated in heating, cooling, lighting, hotwater and appliances.   This model has already been validated using the Swedish residential stock as a test case. The present work continues the development of the methodology by focusing on the UK building stock by discribing the UK building stock trough archetype buildings and their physical properties which are used as inputs to the ECCABS. In addition, this work seekes to check the adequacy of applying the ECCABS model to the UK building stock. The outputs which are the final energy use of the entire building stock are compared to data available in national and international sources.   The UK building stoch is described by a total of 252 archetype buildings. It is determined by considering nine building typologies, four climate zones, six periods of construction and two types of heating systems. The total final energy demand calculated by ECCABS for the residential sector is 578.83 TWh for the year 2010, which is 2.6 % higher than the statistics provided by the Department of Energy and Climate Change(DECC). In the non-residential sector the total final energy demand is 77.28 TWh for the year 2009, which is about 3.2% lower than the energy demand given by DECC. Potential reasons which could have affected the acuracy of the final resualts are discussed in this master thesis.

The primary purpose of this dissertation is to analyze the supply and demand of energy in China by utilizing an input-output-analysis. The energy input-output table used in this dissertation was combined with other data from the Energy Statistics Yearbook of China to draw up a hybrid-unit input-output table diagram and its simulation analysis. According to the data, the shortage in China¡¦s electric-producing sector in 1997 had the strongest impact on the total output of China¡¦s economy. Over the years, electric producers have been gradually playing a vital role as China¡¦s main energy source. The analysis also pointed out that China¡¦s energy industry was insignificant prior to 1997, mainly due to government price regulation. This dissertation is therefore expected to identify a new path in the study of energy demand and supply in China.