Over the last twenty-five years, fuel poverty in England has successfully transitioned from niche academic interest to mandated concern of the state. More recently still, government have opted to charge energy suppliers with primary delivery responsibility for fuel poverty programmes. The original contribution to knowledge made by this thesis is in offering a novel comparative analysis of the potential for the state and energy suppliers to effectively support fuel poor households. This research offers one of the first academic assessments of the new suite of policies championed by the coalition government formed in 2010. It is also amongst the first pieces of work to apply and critically assess the new official metric for fuel poverty, the Low Income, High Costs definition. By assessing delivery choices against the tenets of neoliberalism identified as guiding recent UK governments, the work further takes into account the motivations of policymakers. A diverse methodological approach is applied, incorporating policy evaluation, quantitative analysis, synthesis of existing literature, and professional engagement. This research establishes that in passing the Warm Homes and Energy Conservation Act 2000, politicians did not appreciate the demands of the commitment to eradicate fuel poverty by 2016. Subsequently, supplier obligations initially intended as a means of mitigating climate change have become the primary policy tool for tackling fuel poverty. The evidence presented here suggests, however, that suppliers are inherently poorly suited to this task for a variety of reasons: their access to the data required to successfully identify fuel poor households is limited; they fund activity in a manner that is unavoidably regressive; and the extent to which they are able to deliver programmes more efficiently than the state is, particularly for economic interventions, subject to question. It is consequently argued that, whilst supplier obligations are likely to appeal to an austerity-driven, neoliberal government as an expedient means of keeping expenditure away from the public purse and of limiting the role of the state, this work demonstrates that increased government involvement and greater political ambition will be required if fuel poverty policies are to be successful.

This thesis provides an empirical case study as to whether, and, how the macro political dynamics might lead to the micro organisational changes of cost management practices in public sector organisations. It draws on Dillard et al.'s (2004) version of institutional theory complemented by Burns and Scapens' (2000) model. Empirical data for the thesis came from an extended case study (Burawoy, 1998) of a state-owned enterprise in the Egyptian Electricity and Energy (E&E) Sector, in which semi-structured interviews, field observations and documentary analysis were deployed as the data collection methods. The thesis highlights the necessity of seeing cost management change, especially in the politically sensitive public utilities in less developed countries, as an institutional political change that brings together the wider political objectives of the state and the narrower economic objectives of the firms. Accordingly, it provides a political theorisation for cost management change in the public sector. There, the dynamics are the fact that the E&E costs in the Egyptian business environment are historically managed at three distinct but interrelated institutional levels: political level, field level, and organisational level. For example, with the failure of re-privatisation attempts, new forms of periodic control reports have emerged including a 'cost report' which has been instrumental in changing managerial actions and behaviours. With modernisation programmes accompanied by reprivatisation attempts, initiated by the Egyptian government and supported by the international development agencies such as the World Bank and the European Union, advanced ERP technologies have been brought in to institutionalise costing rules and routines. With ERP, the organisational management under what are effectively military practices has re-defined cost management processes into a single procedural protocol.

This paper focuses on problems of energy sector in the European union. Primary goal is the analysis of the EU position from the perspective of the most significant indicators, consumption, reserves, production, trade, etc. and consequently defining the perspectives of energy policy developement, defining their targets and measures. The paper is divided into four main parts. The first part is dedicated to the teoretical and historical insight of the phenomenon of consumption growth, with a focus on the relationship of GDP and energy consumption. Second part is dedicated to analysis of energy consumption in the world and in the EU, in numbers and the energy-fuel balance developement. Third part evaluates EU position by various primary resources and evaluates the importance and narrow points of their use in the EU area Last, the fourth part defines priority areas of european energy policy and evaluates the importance of the measures used to achieve goals

This diploma thesis deals with the energy policy of the Russian Federation in the period from 2000 to 2008 and its prospects until 2030. First of all, I analyse particular targets of the energy policy of Russia and put them in a broader framework. Consequently, I focus my attention on three economic targets that need to be met if Russia is to become an "energetic superpower". Firstly, I search for the answer to the question whether Russia has enough oil and gas for foreigner markets and whether it can provide for their export in order to be able to act successfully as an "energetic superpower". Secondly, whether Russia will succeed when exporting oil and natural gas to world markets and whether it will manage to diversify transport routes for its exports. Thirdly, whether the effort to "make the economy move" supported by raw-material exports has been successful and whether this situation can continue. The thesis further follows each answer to these questions in two dimensions of time. A hindsight shall first clarify how successful the energy policy of Russia was when meeting these targets until 2008, or what problems Russia had to face while trying to meet them. In consequence, this provides a basis for a foresight.

International experience indicates that energy labelling programmes are rapidly evolving as a valuable tool for energy efficiency awareness and practice in the built environment. Four years after the launch of the South African labelling programme, Green Buildings for Africa (GBfA), it became evident that implementation was not successful. This study evaluates the contribution of a range of factors towards the sustained implementation and uptake of energy labelling programmes for commercial buildings based on a comparative appraisal of relevant international case studies and the GBfA. The analytical process is based on three types of energy labelling categories (mandatory energy audit, voluntary energy audit and voluntary benchmarking scheme) and two categories of factors (contextual and programme-specific). The key finding is that government involvement and support is critical, if not a prerequisite, for successful roll-out of an energy labelling programme. Key recommendation is that a local programme be initially based on a voluntary benchmark programme approach.

O objetivo desta tese é avaliar os impactos regionais de longo prazo da política tarifária do setor elétrico brasileiro. As reformas estruturais neste setor determinaram o surgimento de duas diferentes tendências de distribuição espacial das tarifas de energia elétrica entre os estados brasileiros: uma de convergência e outra de dispersão espacial. A disparidade regional das tarifas no período recente vem sendo influenciada pelas características espaciais da economia brasileira, dentre as quais a elevada concentração espacial e distribuição hierárquica de grandes mercados no espaço. Nesse sentido, os diferenciais de preços de energia elétrica tendem a ser causados pelos diferenciais de tamanho de mercado, os quais fornecem diferentes condições para a obtenção de economias de escala pelas companhias de distribuição de energia elétrica. Com base nesses elementos e na evidência de que o produto energia elétrica é um insumo importante no processo produtivo, foi construído um modelo Interregional de Equilíbrio Geral Computável para análise de política energética. As simulações mostraram evidências de que as ligações de insumo-produto, a heterogeneidade espacial da intensidade de energia elétrica e os diferenciais regionais de substituição energética estão entre os principais determinantes dos impactos espaciais da variação no preço da energia elétrica. Por outro lado, a recente tendência de dispersão espacial nas tarifas de energia elétrica pode estar contribuindo para reduzir o PIB real nacional e aumentar as desigualdades regionais no Brasil. / The objective of this dissertation is to evaluate the long-run regional impacts of tariff policy of the Brazilian electric power sector. The structural reforms carried on this sector determined the emergence of two different spatial distribution trends of the electric power tariffs among the Brazilian states: one of convergence and another of spatial divergence. The regional dispersion of tariffs is being influenced by the spatial features of the Brazilian economy, which is marked by the high degree of spatial concentration and the hierarchical distribution of large markets on the space. In spite of this, the electric power price differentials in Brazil tend to be determined by the market size differentials, which provide different conditions for gains from economies of scale by the electric power distribution companies. Based on these elements and in the fact that electric power is an important input for the production process, an Interregional Computable General Equilibrium model for energy policy analysis was built. The simulations showed that the input-output linkages, the spatial heterogeneity of the electric power intensity and the regional energy substitution differentials are the main determinants of spatial impacts of electric power price changes in Brazil. On the other hand, the recent trend of spatial divergence of the electric power prices may be contributing to reduce the national real GDP and to increase the regional inequalities in Brazil.

Os sistemas de produção e utilização do biogás podem envolver externalidades positivas como o tratamento de resíduos, a produção de biofertilizante e a redução de emissões de gases de efeito estufa. Além disso, possibilitam o desenvolvimento do potencial energético desta fonte renovável, que pode ser aproveitada por meio da geração de energia elétrica ou pela produção de biometano, combustível obtido pela purificação do biogás, e que é similar ao gás natural. Nesse contexto, o objetivo desta dissertação é detalhar estas estratégias e compará-las para o caso brasileiro. Busca-se identificar o uso mais desejável do biogás no contexto do setor energético nacional, considerando as características da fonte e sua relação com a situação atual e as perspectivas dos mercados de eletricidade e gás. Para isso, inicialmente é realizada uma revisão das tecnologias de aproveitamento do biogás e são discutidas as vantagens de se identificar um uso que possa se tornar prioritário, capaz de reunir em si os incentivos para a expansão dessa fonte na matriz energética. Argumenta-se que o desenvolvimento de uma indústria local e de projetos bem-sucedidos, necessários ao fortalecimento do biogás no Brasil, podem ser alcançados por meio da criação de mecanismos de fomento específicos para uma estratégia, que sejam claros e de longo prazo. Em seguida, a evolução desse setor na Alemanha e na Suécia é avaliada, observando-se que políticas de direcionamento da utilização do biogás conduziram o mercado, tendo como consequência sistemas voltados, respectivamente, à geração de energia elétrica e à produção de biometano para uso veicular. Baseada na definição de política energética, a comparação entre a produção de eletricidade e de biometano a partir do biogás no Brasil é apresentada segundo os critérios: segurança no abastecimento, preço da energia, balança entre importações e exportações, infraestrutura, e aspectos ambientais. As conclusões apontam para o biometano como um uso promissor da energia do biogás no país em termos da redução de importações e em projetos de grande escala próximos à infraestrutura de gás natural, mas com barreiras a serem superadas principalmente quanto a competitividade em plantas menores e distantes dos gasodutos. A produção de energia elétrica, por outro lado, tem incentivos e mecanismos de comercialização estabelecidos e pode ser competitiva principalmente se exploradas suas características de energia firme e flexibilidade, mesmo em um contexto de concorrentes renováveis de grande potencial e em crescimento. / Biogas production systems may involve positive externalities such as waste treatment, biofertilizer production and the reduction of greenhouse gases emissions. Besides, they enable the use of its renewable energy potential, which can generate electricity or produce biomethane. Biomethane is obtained from biogas upgrading and it is similar to natural gas. This study details these strategies and compare them for the Brazilian case, with the aim of identifying if there is one optimal solution for biogas utilization within the context of the national energy sector, by analyzing the characteristics of biogas and its correlation with the status and the perspectives of the electricity and gas markets in the country. First, the advantages of selecting one alternative of biogas utilization to be the focus of policy instruments and to guide the development of the biogas sector are discussed. It is argued that the development of a local industry and successful projects, required to expand the biogas sector in Brazil, could benefit from technology-specific incentives, designed as clear and long-term mechanisms. The evolution of biogas systems in Germany and Sweden are investigated, and it is observed that the policies implemented in these countries have guided biogas utilization, respectively, to electricity generation and to biomethane use as vehicle fuel. Then, based on the definition of energy policy, five criteria are selected to evaluate and compare electricity and biomethane production from biogas in Brazil: security of supply, energy price, balance of trade, infrastructure, and environmental aspects. It can be concluded that, although biomethane can have a positive impact reducing natural gas imports especially in large-scale projects close to pipeline infrastructure, it also has many barriers to overcome, including its adaptation to small-scale units and the limitation of infrastructure. Electricity generation is a more established alternative that can be feasible if its capacity to provide baseload and flexibility are properly evaluated, even facing the competition of other renewable technologies with low-cost and large potential in the country.

O setor de micro e minigeração de energia elétrica encontra-se num estágio inicial de desenvolvimento no Brasil que pode ser considerado aquém de suas potencialidades em contraste com os recursos energéticos renováveis do país, passados três anos do estabelecimento dos primeiros incentivos de órgãos públicos e privados e da promulgação de regulações específicas voltadas para o setor, indicando uma possível conjuntura atual insuficiente para um crescimento mais consistente e dinâmico. Com tal problemática em vista, a presente dissertação tem como objetivo contribuir no desenvolvimento do setor nacional de micro e minigeração eólica e solar, tecnologias com maior potencial de instalação, apresentando propostas de ações que podem solucionar questões econômicas, técnicas e regulatórias que possivelmente estão dificultando o alcance de um maior equilíbrio de interesses entre os principais agentes envolvidos nesta atividade econômica, ou seja, potenciais usuários, concessionárias de energia, fabricantes e órgãos do governo, aumentando a atratividade e dinamizando os negócios no setor, com benefícios diretamente estendidos ao desenvolvimento do país como um todo. A construção das propostas teve como base o estudo da atual conjuntura e a identificação de possíveis barreiras existentes ao desenvolvimento da micro e minigeração de energia elétrica no Brasil através de análise crítica e mensurável da atual maturidade do setor, isto é, do atual estágio de desenvolvimento e da margem de evolução possível nos aspectos mais relevantes para esta atividade, ou seja, regulações, incentivos, capacidade tecnológica e capacitação profissional. Além disso, observou-se que grande parte dos brasileiros desconhece o tema, porém, depois que cientes do assunto, o percebem como relevante e demonstram disposição significativa para adotar tais sistemas de geração renovável em suas unidades consumidoras. Por fim, avaliou-se que caso ao menos parte das ações descritas nas propostas forem efetivamente implantadas, a perspectiva é que haja uma evolução no ambiente técnico e econômico do setor no país, tornando-o favorável ao desenvolvimento da atividade de micro e minigeração de energia. Espera-se que as propostas apresentadas nesta dissertação possam ser utilizadas como base para trabalhos futuros de instituições governamentais e privadas, fabricantes, centros de pesquisas, universidades e demais interessados no assunto para serem validadas, aperfeiçoadas e detalhadas para um possível estabelecimento no país. Assim, o trabalho apresenta que se houver desenvolvimento de ambiente favorável, o Brasil desponta como país com alto potencial no mercado de micro e minigeração de energia elétrica e que há possibilidades de ações governamentais e privadas, passíveis de discussões e estudos, para fomentar este ambiente. / The micro and mini electricity power generation sector is at an early stage of development in Brazil that can be considered below of its potential in contrast to the country renewable energy resources, three years after the establishment of the first public and private incentives and the enacting of specific regulations for the sector, indicating a possible insufficient conjuncture for a more consistent and dynamic growth. Considering this problematic, the purpose of this work is to contribute to the development of national micro and minigeneration industry by wind and solar photovoltaic resources, technologies with greatest potential for being installed currently, presenting action proposals that can solve economic, technical and regulatory issues that possibly are hampering the achievement of a better interests balance between the major players involved in this economic activity, i.e., potential users, distribution companies, manufacturers and government agencies, increasing attractiveness and boosting business in this sector, with benefits directly extended to the environment and to the development of the country as a whole. The construction of the proposals was based on the study of the current situation and identifying possible existing barriers to Brazil micro and minigeneration development through a critical and measurable analysis of the current sector maturity, in other words, the current stage of development and the margin of possible evolution on the most relevant aspects of this activity, i.e., regulations, incentives, technological capacity and workers professional training. Furthermore, it was observed that most Brazilians are not familiarized with this subject, but after aware, they perceive it as relevant and demonstrate significant willingness to adopt such renewable generation systems in their consumer units. Finally, it was evaluated that if at least some of the actions described in the proposals are effectively implemented, the perspective is for a technical and economic environment progress, making it favorable for a micro and minigeneration energy activity development. It is expected that the proposals presented in this thesis can be used as a basis for future works of government and private institutions, manufacturers, research centers, universities and others interested in the subject to validate, improve and detail them for a possible establishment in the country. As a result, the thesis presents that if a favorable environment is developed, Brazil can stand out as a country with high potential in the micro and minigeneration electricity market and that there are possibilities of government and private actions, likely to discussions and studies, to foster this environment.

The deployment of renewable energy (RE) technologies for electricity generation is a central element of the European energy and climate strategy and was laid down in binding targets on EU-level. The actual RE technology diffusion is, however, shaped by the framework conditions and support measures implemented in the individual EU Member States. This dissertation aims at contributing to a more integrated view of the influencing factors (determinants) for the deployment of RE technologies. To this end, a conceptual framework is drawn up to assess the boundary conditions for RE diffusion from the RE developer’s perspective. The framework is operationalised using a composite indicator (CI) approach and applied in a diffusion model to allow the anticipation of possible future technology deployment. The thesis concentrates on two mainstream RE technologies, namely onshore wind and non-residential PV, and focuses on European countries. Within the analysis, particular emphasis is placed on providing a holistic assessment of the impact of economic and non-economic determinants on the diffusion of RE technologies at national level. The assessment aims at understanding RE developers’ preferences and rationalities regarding the overall framework conditions for RE deployment in order to identify the drivers for and barriers to technological change and to facilitate efficient policy design and regulatory transformation. The most relevant diffusion determinants from the viewpoint of RE project developers are identified through literature research and moderated expert workshops. The relative relevance of the determinants in the diffusion process is then assessed based on an EU-wide questionnaire that resulted in the collection of >200 datasets. Building on this broad empirical basis, a composite indicator (CI) is developed for the diffusion of non-residential PV and wind onshore. The CI provides a transparent framework for the quantification of the diffusion determinants and allows an evaluation and benchmarking of national RE frameworks. In a further step, the CI is integrated in a diffusion model which enables projections of possible future market developments under different configurations of the national RE framework. This modelling approach applies and further develops established logistic models of technology diffusion. The overall approach is validated by applying it to three case study countries: Germany, Spain and the United Kingdom. Data collection in these case study countries involved, among others, semi-structured interviews with 31 RE experts. The different regulatory framework conditions in the three countries lead to 3 different CI results and projected technology diffusion. The results verify the robustness of the approach and the applicability of the concept to different national contexts. The findings of this thesis contribute to the methodological and empirical basis for understanding and modelling technology diffusion processes in general and RE technology diffusion in particular. The approach developed in this thesis further improves the scientific basis for the evaluation of RE support policies and can contribute to RE targets being achieved in an efficient and sustainable way.

A criação e aplicação de uma política (ou conjunto de políticas) de incentivo à eficiência energética, composta por um conjunto harmônico e coeso de instrumentos adequados à realidade nacional, resultará em: 1) aumento da competitividade da indústria nacional; 2) expansão da oferta de energia a custo mínimo; e 3) avanços no sentido de aproximar a economia nacional de um modelo ambientalmente sustentável. Adicione-se a estes 3 pontos, que importa que se implantem políticas públicas de apoio à eficiência energética, pois, além da larga escala em que muitos dos investimentos em eficiência energética precisam ser coordenados, alguns destes forçosamente devem ser públicos por serem destinados a corrigir falhas de mercado. O conhecimento dos diversos instrumentos de políticas de incentivo à eficiência energética existentes propiciará às instâncias decisórias envolvidas melhores condições para a elaboração e implantação daqueles que se mostrarem mais necessários e eficazes para a realidade nacional. Devido a fatores econômicos e ambientais, diversos países implantaram, ao longo da História, políticas de apoio à eficiência energética. Cada uma destas políticas se valeu de algumas dentre diversas ferramentas, tais como a criação de normas regendo os desempenhos mínimos obrigatórios de equipamentos consumidores de energia, a criação de assimetrias de mercado que favoreçam economicamente a penetração de tecnologias, produtos e serviços energeticamente eficientes e a sinalização fiscal e tarifária no sentido do uso eficiente da energia por parte dos diversos setores consumidores, entre outras. Os países da OCDE (Organização para a Cooperação e Desenvolvimento Econômico) têm um amplo histórico de implantação de políticas de incentivo à eficiência energética. Isto se deve a diversos fatores, tais como a necessidade de reduzir a dependência de fontes externas de energia, problemas ambientais (dado que muito da geração nestes países é termoelétrica - problemas com poluentes gasosos, tais como os gases de efeito-estufa - ou nuclear - problemas com o manejo de resíduos radioativos) e a alta competitividade dos mercados globais (a melhoria contínua da eficiência energética dos processos produtivos é uma questão de desenvolvimento tecnológico com implicações na produtividade industrial destes países, sendo neles amplamente incentivada). Assim sendo, se estudou mais detalhadamente os instrumentos de políticas de incentivo à eficiência energética adotados por alguns países da OCDE que se caracterizam por elevados consumos energéticos, bem como os adotados por países da OCDE com culturas mais próximas da brasileira (Portugal e Espanha) e aqueles adotados por México e Chile (economias latino-americanas de porte significativo) e pelo próprio Brasil (para que se possa comparar os instrumentos estudados com aqueles que já se encontram em curso em território nacional). Os instrumentos adotados de modo conjunto pelos países da União Européia são apresentados em capítulo próprio, dada sua natureza única. Para fins de exeqüibilidade deste trabalho, foram analisados principalmente os instrumentos referentes à eficiência energética dos usos finais de energia elétrica e hidrocarbonetos. Na seqüência, estes programas e iniciativas são analisados de modo a se chegar a uma classificação dos mesmos por modo de operação. Finalmente, discorre-se sobre os elementos mais significativos dentro do espaço amostral estudado, elaborando-se assim uma base de dados que possa subsidiar a elaboração de uma política nacional de eficiência energética. / Setting up and enforcing a policy (or policies) fostering energy efficiency, comprising a harmonic and coherent tool-set appropriate to the Brazilian reality will bring: 1) better competitivity for our industry; 2) larger energy supplies at minimal costs; and 3) enhancing of Brazilian economy\'s environmental sustainability. Add up to this that establishment of public policies on energy efficiency is highly needed since, besides their requirements on large scale coordination of investments, many must be provided by government, for they are meant to overcome market failures. Knowing the diverse available instruments of energy efficiency fostering policies will give our decision makers better grounds on which to prepare, elaborate, enact and enforce those that turn out to be the best options for the country. Due to both environmental and economic concerns, many nations implemented a wide range of energy efficiency policies in the course of History. Each of those deployed some among many tools, such as the setting up of mandatory minimum efficiency performance standards for energy using equipment and appliances, the creation of market asymmetries financially favoring the uptake of energy efficient technologies, goods, and services and fiscal and taxing signals raising awareness of energy using sectors on efficient energy use, among others. OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) countries have a long history on enacting energy efficiency policies. This is due to several factors, such as the need to reduce dependence on external energy sources, environmental problems (since much of the power generation in those nations is thermo electrical - troubles with gaseous pollutants, such as greenhouse gases - or nuclear - troubles in handling nuclear wastes), and the fierce competition in the global market (continual enhancing of productive processes energy efficiency is a matter of technological development presenting strong implications in the industrial productivity of those countries, so they are highly supportive of it). Being things that way, we studied in greater detail the energy efficiency policies of some markedly energy intensive OECD countries, as well as those adopted by OECD countries featuring cultures more alike Brazilian culture (Portugal and Spain) and those adopted by Mexico and Chile (significant Latin-American economies) and Brazil itself, so one may compare the previously presented measures and programs to what is already in course here in Brazil in terms of energy efficiency policies. Instruments jointly deployed by European countries in the scope of the European Union and their Framework Programs are set apart in their own chapter in this thesis, due to their unique nature. To allow for a feasible survey, we restricted ourselves mostly to the analysis of instruments related to energy efficiency in the final uses of electric power and hydrocarbons. As a next step, those programs and initiatives are analyzed in order to assemble a table of categories by means of which they may be sorted by main operational characteristics. Finally, representative elements in this sampling space are described in some detail, assembling thus an initial database on which one may elaborate when bringing to light and enforcing a Brazilian policy on energy efficiency.