The importance of ecological systems in supporting social systems has been identified as one of the most important facets of sustainable development. Consequently, a number of international and local laws and policy interventions have been established to ensure that natural resource use remains sustainable. In rural areas, overdependence on fuel wood has commonly been identified as one of the biggest threat to forestry ecosystems. This in turn has led to environmental degradation that includes among others species depletion, soil erosion and decline in water and air quality. Based on the myriad problems caused by over-reliance on fuel wood, this study sought to identify usage, management and perceived implication of woodland exploitation in Port St Johns local municipality in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Using interviews and questionnaires for key respondents in the local community, the study identified two key threats to socio-ecological stability resulting from wood fuel exploitation namely; high poverty levels and lack of coordination in the management of wood fuel resources. Apart from using fuel wood for domestic use, local fuel wood exploitation has been commercialized to augment household incomes. Lack of coordination in the management of natural resources has also created a vacuum in the exploitation and management of fuel wood resources. The study did not have inclination towards statistics such as chi-square and t-tests since the research questions and objectives did not refer to any relationship or significance level. The study recommends non-wood based alternative sources of energy, improved coordination and harmonization of functions among different stakeholders and emphasis on collaboration between traditional and local governance in the management fuel wood and the local physical environment. The study further recommends resuscitation of indigenous knowledge and socio-ecological stability

The rapid and sustained development of the rural regions of South Africa continues to pose an extraordinary challenge to the development community of the country. Policy makers continue to be overwhelmed by the lack of development in the rural areas in spite of the various efforts made to develop them. A review of the publications and development plans of the study region indicates that the planners have for long been pre-occupied with taking limited perspectives of the development planning problems. Development plans have been conceived and implemented in terms of individual sectors instead of looking at their relations with other sectors and regions. This study seeks to make a contribution to the solution of the development problems of the rural areas of the former homeland regions by demonstrating how an integrated approach to the research process and to development planning could make a difference to the lives of the rural communities. This theme is illustrated with reference to the rural energy sector and its relations with the broader regional development problems, challenges and plans of the Sekhukhune district municipality of the Limpopo Province. / GEOGRAPHY / MA (GEOGRAPHY)

Promoting household food security for many poor people globally and more so in Sub-Saharan Africa continues to be a challenge today. Ever rising poverty levels, an influx in the prevalence of the HIV/ AIDS pandemic, reduced rainfall accompanied by changing climatic patterns, environmental bankruptcy, the complexities associated with urbanization, globalisation as well as technology shift in the agricultural sector and capitalistic market economies all play a role in the food security debate. This research has highlighted some of the factors that influence the food economy and related these to the household food security of poor informal settlement dwellers. Achieving household food security for poor urban households requires an integrated approach in terms of poverty eradication as well as deliberate efforts with regards to food production and distribution within a framework of ecological integrity, with an aim of empowering the poor and ensuring that their household food security is guaranteed. / Development Studies / Thesis (M.A. (Development Studies))

Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 2002. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: African Acacia species are often major contributors to the progressive increase in the woody component of savannas, a phenomenon commonly referred to as bush encroachment. In Hluhluwe- Umfolozi Park, the numbers of adult Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. Ex Del. trees per hectare far exceed (by III) that of A. karroo Hayne adults. The relative dominance is reversed in the juvenile stage with A. karroo (725 ha') outnumbering A. nilotica (225 ha-I) threefold outside closed woodlands. African acacias produce large quantities of seed and may have large soil-stored seed banks. They suffer pre-dispersal predation by bruchid beetles and may be either wind or animal dispersed. Once dispersed they are vulnerable to post-dispersal attack. This study tested several hypotheses regarding various aspects of seed ecology of A. karroo and A. nilotica. The null hypothesis that seed ecology does not contribute to the success of A. karroo over A. nilotica, was tested. Acacia karroo trees were smaller (mean basal diameter: 7.8 cm) than A. ni/otica trees (mean basal diameter: 18.5 cm) on average, but produced more seeds (A. karroo mean: 1628; A. nilotica mean: 992) for a given basal diameter size class. It was found that A. karroo showed less bruchid infestation (mean: 1.36-3.81%) than A. nilotica (mean: 14.67-86.70%) at all stages of pod development with a proportion of A. karroo seeds (7.1 %) being able to germinate after bruchid attack. Bruchid attack rendered A. ni/otica seeds unviable. There was no difference between the two species with regards to the soil-stored seed bank and the viability of seeds found in the soil. Acacia karroo showed higher germination levels (5.1%) and better establishment (4.9%) than A. nilotica (1.5% and 0.4% respectively). On average, there was no difference in germination levels between burnt and unbumt seeds, but there was a significant difference in germination of burnt seeds in both burnt (4.5%) and unbumt (2.5%) sites and unbumt seeds in both burnt (2.8%) and unbumt (4.9%) sites when considered separately. Post-dispersal predation of A. karroo seeds (21.8%) was higher than that of A. nilotica (12.7%). There was more rodent predation in tall grass areas (26.0%) than short grass (10.7%) or canopy areas (15.2%), and most seeds were lost from unprotected control groups. Rodent presence was a significant factor in unexplained seed disappearance. The ability of A. karroo to germinate easily and the low levels of beetle predation experienced by this species seemed to be its main advantage over A. nilotica as an encroaching species in Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Acacia spesies van Afrika is dikwels belangrike bydraers tot die progressiewe toename in die houtkomponent van savannas. Hierdie verskynsel word algemeen na verwys as bosindringing. In die Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park is die aantal volwasse Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. Ex Del. bome per hektaar aansienlik meer (l l l meer) as die aantal volwasse A. karroo Hayne bome. In die jong stadium is die oorheersing omgekeerd, met driekeer soveel A. karroo (725 ha-I) as A. nilotica (225 ha-I) bome buite beboste gedeeltes. Afrika se Acacia spesies produseer groot hoeveelhede saad en kan oor aansienlike grond-gebergde saadbanke beskik. Voor verspreiding word die saad aan predasie deur bruchid-kewers blootgestel. Die saad kan óf deur wind óf diere versprei word en na verspreiding word dit ook aan predasie blootgestel. Hierdie studie het verskillende hipoteses rakende verskeie aspekte van die saadekologie van A. karroo en A. nilotica getoets. Die nulhipotese dat saadekologie nie tot die groter sukses van A. karroo teenoor A. nilotica bydrae nie, is getoets. Acacia karroo bome was oor die algemeen kleiner (gemid. basale omtrek: 7.8 cm) as A. nilotica (gemid. basale omtrek: 18.5 cm) bome maar het meer saad (A. karroo gemid.: 1628; A. nilotica gemid.: 992) per gegewe basale diameter grootte klas gelewer. Daar is geen verskil tussen die twee spesies rakende grondgebergde saadbanke en die lewensvatbaarheid van hierdie saad gevind nie. Acacia karroo het hoër vlakke van ontkieming (5.1%) en beter vestiging (4.9%) as A. nilotica (l.5% en .4% respektiewelik) getoon. Daar was oor die algemeen geen verskil in die ontkiemingsvlakke van gebrande en ongebrande sade nie, maar wel 'n beduidende verskil in die ontkieming van gebrande sade in beide gebrande (4.5%) en ongebrande (2.5%) areas en ongebrande sade in gebrande (2.8%) en ongebrande (4.9%) areas as dit afsonderlik geëvalueer is. Die predasie van A. karroo saad na verspreiding (21.8%) was hoër as dié van A. nilotica (12.7%). Daar was meer knaagdier-predasie in gebiede met lang gras (26.0%) as dié met kort gras (10.7%) of boomryke gedeeltes (15.2%). Die meeste saad is in onbeskermde kontrolegroepe verloor. Die teenwoordigheid van knaagdiere het 'n belangrike rol in die onverklaarde verdwyning van saad gespeel. Dit is gevind dat A. karroo se vermoë om maklik te ontkiem, asook die lae vlakke van insek skade aan die saad, die belangrikste voorsprong is wat dié spesie oor A. nilotica as 'n indringer in Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park het.

Thesis (MA (Geography and Environmental Studies))--University of Stellenbosch, 2005. / River basins have long been attracting human settlement and development, promising water and fertile lands (Newson 1992). The Bot River Catchment on the southern coast of South Africa is no exception. However, much of the development in this catchment has not been controlled and its land and water resources are being abused. This is affecting the water quality and quantity of the river system and estuary at an alarming rate. In this thesis, the ‘reference’ land cover in the Bot River Catchment is recreated. This term is used to describe “the hydrological state of the catchment as it was when completely covered in natural vegetation, thus before it was impacted by humans” (Jacobs & Bruwer 2002:12). A rainfall-runoff model is employed to investigate the effects of various land covers on the catchment’s runoff quantity, by comparing the simulation results of the catchment’s reference and current state. The results of the model point to a large reduction in runoff since the reference state of the catchment. As the rainfall-runoff model applied did not allow for modelling of the annual agriculture that dominates the catchment, the runoff reduction was attributed to the smaller areas of perennial agriculture, forestry and alien vegetation infestation. The simulation results confirmed the threat of current land use practices on the environmental integrity of the Bot River Catchment. A transition to agricultural practices that are more suited to the climate is suggested and the eradication of alien vegetation should be seen as a priority. Most importantly, a holistic approach should be taken towards the management of the Bot River Catchment. The altered hydrodynamic regime of the Bot River Estuary is symptomatic of misuse of the entire catchment. As ongoing demographic and land use pressures create a new generation of water management problems (Department of Water Affairs & Forestry 1993), a deeper understanding of the relationships between the different components in the Bot River Catchment becomes increasingly urgent.

Globally, ecosystems provide services of almost twice the value of global gross national product (Costanza et al., 2006). The Buffalo City Municipality (BCM), South Africa contains biodiversity of national and international importance (Pierce, 2003; Pierce et al., 2005). Despite this, the municipality continues to experience loss of both urban and rural biodiversity (Buffalo City Municipality, 2006a). This study sought to determine the status of biodiversity, and the potential for ecosystem services to contribute to conservation, within the BCM. Biodiversity features, including ecosystem type, species of special concern and biodiversity processes, were identified and mapped using a GIS to produce a biodiversity priority index for the BCM. Current transformation status was then mapped to determine the level of ecosystem degradation within the BCM. Priority biodiversity areas as well as individual biodiversity features were spatially overlain against current transformation status and protected areas and analysed using a GIS to determine the level of degradation and protection of BCM biodiversity. In total 3.5 % of total BCM biodiversity was protected. Of the 24 ecosystem types, 11 (45%) had less than 1% under protection, while 16 (67%) had less than five percent protected. Not restorable areas, thus completely lost to biodiversity conservation, comprised just less than a quarter of the total BCM area while un-impacted areas comprised just 12.3%. Twenty five ecosystem services were identified as being provided by intact natural ecosystems within the BCM. The natural capital providing these services was identified and mapped to produce an ecosystem service index (ESI) using a GIS. This ecosystem service index and the biodiversity priority index were overlain to determine their level of correlation. Overall ESI correlation with priority biodiversity was weak although several individual ecosystem services, including carbon sequestration, showed correlation. Using the above data layers an implementation plan and conservation framework was proposed to assist the coordination of local conservation action within the BCM. It is concluded that ecosystem services are a potentially useful tool for conservationists at the local level seeking to ensure that biodiversity has relevance to and receives protection from broader society.

The rapid and sustained development of the rural regions of South Africa continues to pose an extraordinary challenge to the development community of the country. Policy makers continue to be overwhelmed by the lack of development in the rural areas in spite of the various efforts made to develop them. A review of the publications and development plans of the study region indicates that the planners have for long been pre-occupied with taking limited perspectives of the development planning problems. Development plans have been conceived and implemented in terms of individual sectors instead of looking at their relations with other sectors and regions. This study seeks to make a contribution to the solution of the development problems of the rural areas of the former homeland regions by demonstrating how an integrated approach to the research process and to development planning could make a difference to the lives of the rural communities. This theme is illustrated with reference to the rural energy sector and its relations with the broader regional development problems, challenges and plans of the Sekhukhune district municipality of the Limpopo Province. / GEOGRAPHY / MA (GEOGRAPHY)

Promoting household food security for many poor people globally and more so in Sub-Saharan Africa continues to be a challenge today. Ever rising poverty levels, an influx in the prevalence of the HIV/ AIDS pandemic, reduced rainfall accompanied by changing climatic patterns, environmental bankruptcy, the complexities associated with urbanization, globalisation as well as technology shift in the agricultural sector and capitalistic market economies all play a role in the food security debate. This research has highlighted some of the factors that influence the food economy and related these to the household food security of poor informal settlement dwellers. Achieving household food security for poor urban households requires an integrated approach in terms of poverty eradication as well as deliberate efforts with regards to food production and distribution within a framework of ecological integrity, with an aim of empowering the poor and ensuring that their household food security is guaranteed. / Development Studies / Thesis (M.A. (Development Studies))

There is little understanding of the implementation efficiency and effectiveness of restoring plant invaded landscapes within operational contexts. South Africa's Working for Water (WfW) programme is arguably the most ambitious alien plant control programme in the world, yet little is known about its cost-effectiveness and the challenges it faces in linking poverty and environmental objectives. My first aim was to assess the cost-effectiveness of invasive plant removal, and the factors that underpin its effectiveness over large spatial and temporal scales. The second aim was to compare the accuracy of evidence-based findings with managers' experience-based beliefs, and to assess whether managers are willing to change their beliefs after being exposed to it. The third aim was to assess the costs and benefits of removal versus removal followed by active native re-vegetation. My final aim is to assess the challenges and lessons learnt by managers linking ecological restoration with poverty alleviation objectives, specifically within the public works model. My study area was focused primarily on two WfW river catchment projects in the western region of the Eastern Cape province. I adopted an interdisciplinary approach drawing from a range of methods such as observational studies, statistical modelling and interviews with managers. The key findings were that control efforts in the two catchment projects are largely inadequate owing to many sites being re-invaded and not enough resources being allocated to the catchments. It would take between 54 and 695 years to clear the respective catchments. In terms of cost-effectiveness, my results exceeded previous estimates by 1.5 to 8.6 times for each catchment project. After being exposed to the evidence-based findings, the managers did not change their beliefs when it came to forecasting the future effectiveness. I found that active native re-vegetation after removal of invasive plants is very costly and that priority should be given to understanding the effectiveness of the removal treatments on native species recovery. The managers cited significant challenges in effectively and efficiently meeting the programmes dual objectives. Based on a broader review of the public works literature I recommend WfW re-examine the type of public works they currently use.

The aim of the study was to investigate the impact of Environmental Education in learners with regard to unacceptable waste dumping which causes land degradation in Mkhondo village. Large parts of the Mkhondo area, including the informal settlement, the location and the local school, are very untidy due to littering by the residents and learners. The situation is contrary to the objectives of the Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD). The study was focused on the impact that Environmental Education as an extracurricular activity would have on the students in reducing or eradicating littering. Data was collected through focus group interviews with the learners and the parents as well as observations. The study revealed that learners showed no concern about the negative impact of disposing of litter inappropriately even after the extra-mural activities on Environmental Education, which indicated that they were not concerned about the environment at school as well as at home. The initiative of Environmental Education was implemented in a short period, hence learners were not yet fully acquainted with the responsibility of taking care of the environment and alleviating littering on the school premises. I therefore recommend that educational campaigns on appropriate solid waste disposal should be initiated in the school and in the community. Further studies should be conducted on how Environmental Education can be integrated in the curriculum as an examinable subject. / Environmental Sciences / M. Ed. (Environmental Education)