This thesis examines intergenerational change in prevalence of and attitudes to physical activity by comparing first and second-generation South Asians in Britain. British South Asians have poorer health outcomes including a higher prevalence of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and diabetes than White British people. Physical inactivity is one of the risk factors for CVD and diabetes. Physical activity levels are lower among British South Asians than the White British population, for reasons that include cultural factors related to being South Asian, the low socioeconomic status of some South Asian groups, and living in deprived neighbourhoods. However, existing literature on physical activity levels does not clearly distinguish between first and second-generations. Understanding generational differences in the influences on physical activity among South Asians is important for developing appropriate interventions. First, I review the existing quantitative and qualitative literature on physical activity in second-generation South Asians. There is some evidence that second-generation South Asians are more physically active than the first-generation. Despite this, second-generation South Asians remain less active than White British people. Neither the quantitative nor the qualitative literature has adequately explored the reasons for these findings. I then use data from the Health Survey for England to explore the ways that adult Indians, Pakistanis and Bangladeshis are physically active. When analysed by age and sex, all South Asians and the White British group were physically active in different ways to each other. However, there was little difference between younger Indians and younger White British people in the contribution of walking to total activity. Finally, I present a qualitative analysis of how ethnicity influences physical activity in second-generation South Asians. I interviewed 28 Indian women living in Manchester, England. I found that a British schooling and messages from the media had strongly influenced second-generation Indian women's attitudes to physical activity. Consequently, their motivations and barriers to physical activity were generally very similar to those reported for White British women. Second-generation Indian women had mostly adopted Western gender roles, with Indian gender expectations having a limited impact on their physical activity. In contrast, the traditional roles of Indian women constrained the leisure-time physical activity of the first-generation Indian women. There was no generational difference in how the local neighbourhood influenced physical activity. This thesis demonstrates clear differences in physical activity prevalence and attitudes between first and second-generation South Asian women in the UK. Interventions aimed at improving local environments for physical activity are likely to help all people living in deprived areas, regardless of ethnic background. Changing generic Western social norms around femininity and being physically active may be more important than tailored interventions for second-generation Indian women.

Background: The burden of cardiometabolic disease (CMD) is rising in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). However, there are limited population-based prevalence estimates of CMD risk factors to inform public health initiatives for the prevention and management of CMDs in these populations. This thesis aims to contribute to this evidence gap by assessing the prevalence and distribution of established and emerging CMD risk factors, associations between risk factors, and tools for their identification, in a South African population. Methods: The Durban Diabetes Study (DDS), a population-based cross-sectional survey of CMD risk factors, was designed and data were collected on 1204 participants from the eThekwini Municipality, South Africa. Key findings: In this urban South African population, the prevalence of most CMD risk factors was high, and varied across demographic and socioeconomic groups. The prevalence of smoking and alcohol consumption was higher in men, whilst the prevalence of obesity, hypertension, dyslipidaemia, and hyperglycaemia was higher in women. Wealth was associated with obesity and hypercholesterolemia, whilst education level and employment status were associated with smoking, physical activity and diabetes. Despite several potential advantages, the use of glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) for diagnosis of diabetes is not established in SSA. Using plasma glucose measures as the reference, HbA1c ≥6.5% detected diabetes with high sensitivity and specificity. Furthermore, the association of anaemia, HIV, and antiretroviral therapy (ART) with HbA1c was modest and no statistically significant differences in the prevalence of diabetes were found in those with anaemia or HIV based on plasma glucose and HbA1c measurements. This is the first evidence for the utility of HbA1c for the diagnosis of diabetes in a black SSA population. There is emerging evidence for the association of HIV and ART with CMD risk factors. In the DDS, the prevalence of HIV was high (43.5%) and untreated HIV was associated with low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, whilst ART-treated HIV was associated with high triglycerides. Finally, 30.8% of participants were at high risk of CMD based on metabolic syndrome, but only 7.9% had high 10-year cardiovascular disease risk based on the Framingham risk score. Conclusion: This thesis has added to the evidence base on CMD risk factors in South Africa. These findings highlight the need for longitudinal studies to investigate the aetiology of CMDs and robustly assess the utility of tools to identify risk of CMD in SSA populations.

There is a growing public health concern over the effects that sedentary lifestyles are having on the health of young people, particularly in relation to overweight and obesity. This thesis presents five studies which examine the prevalence, incidence and determinants of sedentary behaviour among youth. The rationale for eachs tudy derives from a framework of behaviourale. pidemiology applied to physical activity and health. Study I presents four systematic reviews of literature. The first review presents a descriptive epidemiology of youth sedentary behaviour. The second review presents a summary of empirical correlates of television viewing, the most prevalent sedentary behaviour among young people. 'Me third and fourth reviews present quantitative syntheses of empirical relationships between television viewing and body composition (review 3) and sedentary behaviour and physical activity (review 4). Study 2 examines the prevalence and interrelationships among different sedentary behaviours and physical activity in a cross-nationa(l USA & UK) sample of 2,494 youth ages 11-15. Study 3 uses a qualitative strategy to generate a grounded framework from which to understand the choices young people make about how to spend their free-time. Study 4 adopts a micro-behavioural approach for understandingt he incidence and temporal patterning of sedentary behaviour among 162 adolescents (age 13-16). Study 5 presents an evaluation of a behaviour change theory useful for increasing levels of physical activity and reducing sedentary behaviour. Sedentary behaviour and physical activity do not appear to be two sides of the same coin and appear to have different sets of determinants. This is an important finding becausee fforts to increase levels of physical activity may not reduce levels of sedentary behaviour. While television viewing, video games and computer use are consistent referents in the academic and media panic surrounding youth inactivity, it is unlikely that these behaviours play a substantialr ole in epidemiologic trends of adolescent overweight and obesity. Further study should attempt to examine how contemporary lifestyles contribute to the growing prevalence of overweight and obesity among adolescents.

Dissertation (Ph.D.)--University of South Florida, 2006. / Title from PDF of title page. Document formatted into pages; contains 303 pages. Includes bibliographical references.

The internet has radically changed the way people obtain and interact with information about diseases, treatments, and conditions. Yet, our understanding of how people access and use health information to make decisions- in other words, their health literacy- has not progressed. The overall aim of this thesis is to assess the extent to which health literacy is a valid and useful construct for policy and practice related to online health resources. A mixed-methods research programme of five studies was undertaken, influenced by realist evaluation methodology. First, to ascertain engagement with user-generated online health content (UGC) in the UK, analysis of a large European survey was undertaken. Then, the uncertainty regarding the relationship between health literacy and outcomes was addressed by a systematic review and qualitative analysis of health literacy measures. Results of these two studies informed interviews carried out with 13 'key informants': policymakers and primary care clinicians in the UK with a particular interest in health literacy and/or online information. A systematic review, incorporating a traditional narrative review and a realist review, evaluated existing trials addressing how effects of online resources vary by health literacy level. Finally, data were analysed from a feasibility randomized controlled trial, comparing usage and outcomes of accessing a 'personal experiences'-based asthma website (representing curated user-generated content) versus a 'facts and figures'-based website. Participant health literacy was assessed using an index identified from the systematic review of measures, and website usage was tracked. Approximately 25% of UK internet users engage with UGC at least monthly. The most frequent users were younger, more likely to be male, and to be carers for someone with a long-term illness. Three themes were identified from health literacy measurement: 'appropriate health decisions', 'ability to obtain healthcare services', and 'confidence'. Key informants noted the lack of clarity about how health literacy influences outcomes, and suggested that personal preferences and digital access and skills may be more relevant than health literacy for policy and practice. Existing trials of online resources in which participant health literacy was measured were mostly at high risk of bias; some possible explanations of how these interventions should work in people with low health literacy were that they may experience higher data entry burden related to chronic diseases, and that they may prefer simulated face-to-face communication. Finally, there were no differences between health literacy groups in the feasibility trial regarding usage or outcomes related to either the 'facts and figures' or 'personal experiences' websites. Taken together, these results question the validity and appropriateness of health literacy as a key objective or consideration in the development or use of online resources. While health literacy has value as a general idea, this thesis demonstrates that it may no longer be the right construct to guide intervention development and implementation to improve health outcomes.

Obesity increases risk for heart disease, hypertension and other chronic diseases, and it affects minority ethnic groups disproportionately. However, it is unknown if African American immigrant adults, an increasing segment of the population, are at higher risk for obesity than African American non-immigrant adults residing in the United States. This study examined the association of obesity and immigrant status by comparing African American immigrant adults now residing in the United States to the general population of African American adults. The socio-ecological model provided the conceptual framework for this study. This study used a cross-sectional quantitative self-administered web-based survey to collect primary data on 303 adult African American immigrants and non-immigrants residing in the United States. Data were analyzed using EpiInfo statistical software. It was hypothesized that the risk of obesity in African American adults is associated with immigration status after adjusting for other factors. The data revealed no significant relationship between obesity and immigration status in African American adults. However, binge drinking and other variables were revealed to be risk factors for morbid obesity in African American immigrants. The results impact social change by demonstrating that obesity control programs targeted at African American immigrant communities should incorporate socio-ecological risk factors. Specific interventions that could be implemented should include screening for alcohol consumption.

Most adolescents and young adults who experience psychological distress do not seek professional help. This study aims to enhance the understanding of sociodemographic, psychological, and clinical characteristics associated with the underuse of health services by adolescents and young adults with mental disorders. Data from a cross-sectional, epidemiological study with a population-based sample (N = 1180 participants, 14–21 years old) were used. Participants completed a fully standardized, computer-assisted diagnostic interview (DIA-X-5/D-CIDI) administered by trained clinical interviewers to assess lifetime mental disorders according to DSM-5 as well as lifetime health service use for mental health problems, and completed self-report questionnaires to assess various psychological variables (e.g., stigma). Predictors of health service use were examined using univariate and multiple logistic regression analyses, data were weighted for age and sex to improve representativeness Of n = 597 participants with any lifetime mental disorder, 32.4% [95% CI 28.4; 36.7] had ever used any health services because of a mental health, psychosomatic, or substance use problem. Even less had received psychotherapeutic or pharmacological treatment (Cognitive Behavioral Therapy: 12.1% [9.5; 15.2]; other psychotherapy: 10.7% [8.4; 13.7]; medication: 5.4% [3.7; 7.8]). High education was associated with less health service use (low/ middle/ other vs. high education: 53.8% vs. 26.9%; OR = 0.26, p < .001). In the multiple regression model, stigma toward mental disorders was the single psychological variable associated with a reduced likelihood of using health services (OR = 0.69 [0.52; 0.90], p < .01). These findings draw attention to the treatment gap for mental disorders during adolescence and highlight related factors to be addressed in public health contexts.

Aims. Provision and need for mental health services among military personnel are a major concern across nations. Two recent comparisons suggest higher rates of mental disorders in US and UK military personnel compared with civilians. However, these findings may not apply to other nations. Previous studies have focused on the overall effects of military service rather than the separate effects of military service and deployment. This study compared German military personnel with and without a history of deployment to sociodemographically matched civilians regarding prevalence and severity of 12-month DSM-IV mental disorders. Method. 1439 deployed soldiers (DS), 779 never deployed soldiers (NS) and 1023 civilians were assessed with an adapted version of the Munich Composite International Diagnostic interview across the same timeframe. Data were weighted using propensity score methodology to assure comparability of the three samples. Results. Compared with adjusted civilians, the prevalence of any 12-month disorder was lower in NS (OR: 0.7, 95% CI: 0.5–0.99) and did not differ in DS. Significant differences between military personnel and civilians regarding prevalence and severity of individual diagnoses were only apparent for alcohol (DS: OR: 0.3, 95% CI: 0.1–0.6; NS: OR: 0.2, 95% CI: 0.1–0.6) and nicotine dependence (DS: OR: 0.5, 95% CI: 0.3–0.6; NS: OR: 0.5, 95% CI: 0.3–0.7) with lower values in both military samples. Elevated rates of panic/agoraphobia (OR: 2.7, 95% CI: 1.4–5.3) and posttraumatic stress disorder (OR: 3.2, 95% CI: 1.3–8.0) were observed in DS with high combat exposure compared with civilians. Conclusions. Rates and severity of mental disorders in the German military are comparable with civilians for internalising and lower for substance use disorders. A higher risk of some disorders is reduced to DS with high combat exposure. This finding has implications for mental health service provision and the need for targeted interventions. Differences to previous US and UK studies that suggest an overall higher prevalence in military personnel might result from divergent study methods, deployment characteristics, military structures and occupational factors. Some of these factors might yield valuable targets to improve military mental health.

Hintergrund: Die Parodontitis (PA) ist eine Entzündung des Zahnhalteapparats und führt unbehandelt zu Zahnlockerung und Zahnverlust. Ein erhöhter systemischer Entzündungszustand, Wechselwirkungen zum Diabetes mellitus und Assoziationen zur Atherosklerose sowie kardiovaskulären Erkrankungen sind bekannt. Bei Dialysepatienten sind kardiovaskuläre Erkrankungen und Infektionen die Haupttodesursachen. Parodontitis als gut behandelbare Erkrankung könnte damit ein veränderbarer Risikofaktor der Mortalität bei Dialysepatienten sein. Der Zustand der terminalen Niereninsuffizienz bedingt eine beeinträchtigte, schlechtere Immunantwort auf Entzündungen und Infektionen. Malnutrition und das urämische Milieu führen ebenso zu einer Veränderung der Immunabwehr. Eine schlechte Mundhygiene und damit einhergehende vermehrt auftretende Entzündungen des Parodonts könnten den systemischen Entzündungszustand bei Dialysepatienten noch verstärken. Mehr kariöse und fehlende Zähne sind Ausdruck eines schlechten Gebisszustandes und führen zu ungenügender Kaufunktion. Auch hat die terminale Niereninsuffizienz Auswirkungen auf den oralen Gesundheitszustand wie z. B. Veränderungen der Mundschleimhaut, Xerostomie, Veränderungen der Zahnhartsubstanzen und des Kieferknochens. Diese können ihrerseits die Kaufähigkeit negativ beeinflussen und den Zustand der Malnutrition noch verstärken. Dialysepatienten verbringen viel Zeit an der Dialyse und legen häufig ein nicht so großes Augenmerk auf andere Gesundheitsfragen. Zielstellung: Die Arbeit untersuchte, ob Unterschiede in der Mund- und Zahngesundheit bei Dialysepatienten gegenüber einer Kontrollgruppe ohne terminale Niereninsuffizienz bestehen. Ebenso wurden Angaben zur Zahn- und Mundgesundheit bewertet. Ein Ziel der Arbeit war die Suche nach Assoziationsfaktoren für das Auftreten einer generalisierten Parodontitis. Die Frage nach dem Einfluss der Hämodialyse für das Vorliegen einer generalisierten Parodontitis bildete den Abschluss der Auswertungen. Methode: 72 Dialysepatienten (Dialysegruppe) des KfH-Nierenzentrums Chemnitz wurden während der Dialysesitzung untersucht. 147 Pattienten ohne Dialyse einer allgemeinzahnärztlichen Praxis bildeten die Kontrollgruppe. Die Untersuchungen hierzu erfolgten in der Praxis. Es wurden der Plaqueindex (PI), Gingivaindex (GI), die Sondierungstiefe (ST), der Attachmentverlust (AV) und der Decayed Missing Filled/Tooth-Index (DMFT-Index) bestimmt. Ein Fragebogen gab Auskunft über Demografie, Gesundheitsfragen, Mundhygieneverhalten und Medikation in beiden Gruppen. Die Datenanalyse erfolgte deskriptiv und im Gruppenvergleich. Eine multivariate logistische Regressionsanalyse diente der Ermittlung des Erkrankungsrisikos für eine fortgeschrittene generalisierte Parodontitis in Abhängikeit verschiedener Prädiktoren. Zur Datenauswertung wurde das Statistikprogramm BIAS für Windows°, Version 9.12 verwendet. Ergebnisse: Die Altersverteilung, der Raucherstatus und die Schulbildung waren in beiden Gruppen vergleichbar. Dialysepatienten wiesen mehr Rentner auf (79 % vs. 44 %; p < 0,0001). In der Dialysegruppe nahmen mehr Männer (74 % vs. 52 %; p < 0,003) an den Untersuchungen teil. Dialysepatienten hatten signifikant mehr allgemeine Erkrankungen, wie Hypertonie (82 % vs. 35 %; p < 0,0001), Diabetes mellitus Typ II (33 % vs. 11 %; p = 0,0002) andere Herzerkrankungen als Herzinfarkte (40 % vs. 8 %; p < 0,0001), Lebererkrankungen (10 % vs. 0,5 %; p < 0,004) und nahmen häufiger und mehr Medikamente (97 % vs. 58 %; p < 0,0001) ein. Die Ursache für die chronische Niereninsuffizienz deckt sich mit den Angaben in der Literatur (u. a. 22 % Glomerulonephritis, 15 % diabetische Nephropathie, 11 % Zystennieren und 9 % vaskuläre Nephropathien). Dialysepatienten hatten einen höheren Anteil kariöser (1,1 vs. 0,2; p < 0,001) und fehlender Zähne (10 vs. 7; p < 0,009). Der Anteil gefüllter Zähne war in der Kontrollgruppe größer (9 vs. 5; p < 0,001). Mittlerer PI, GI und AV waren in der Dialysegruppe signifikant höher bei vergleichbaren Werten für die ST. Dialysepatienten hatten mehr Zähne mit einem AV von > 5 mm (Median 21 %) im Vergleich zur Kontrollgruppe (Median 13 %; p = 0,011). Die Patienten der Dialysegruppe zeigten häufiger (44 % vs. 29 %; p < 0,03) eine generalisierte PA (> 30% der Zähne mit einem AV > 5 mm). Nach anamnestischen Angaben war eine PA bei den Dialyseepatienten öfter bekannt (82 % vs. 40 %; p < 0,001), wurde jedoch signifikant seltener behandelt (14 % vs. 49 %, p < 0,001). Auch das Auftreten von Zahnfleischbluten bemerkten sie häufiger (80 % vs. 60 %; p < 0,003). Die Häufigkeit des Zähneputzens sowie der Grund für einen Zahnarztbesuch unterschieden sich nicht. In der Kontrollgruppe wurden mehr Hilfsmittel zur Zahnreinigung sowie häufiger ein Recall genutzt. Bei 69 % der Dialysepatienten ergab sich keine zahnärztliche Therapieänderung nach Bekanntwerden der Dialysepflichtigkeit und nur 15 % der Dialysepatienten wurden Prophylaxemaßnahmen angeboten. Univariat sind in beiden Gruppen der PI, GI und das Alter signifikante Assoziationsfaktoren für den prozentualen Anteil der Zähne mit einem AV > 5 mm. In der Kontrollgruppe hatten zusätzlich Männer und Diabetiker einen signifikant höheren Anteil betroffener Zähne. Diese Assoziation konnte bei Dialysepatienten nicht beobachtet werden. Ein hoher PI, längere Dialysepflichtigkeit, schlechteres Kt/V und geringerer BMI waren bei HD-Patienten in der multiplen logistischen Regressionsanalyse signifikante Risikofaktoren für das Auftreten einer generalisierten PA. In der Kontrollgruppe erwiesen sich Alter, Rauchen und der GI als entsprechende Risikofaktoren, wobei der Hilfsmittelgebrauch die Signifikanz knapp verfehlte. In der multiplen logistischen Regressionsanalyse unter Einschluss aller Probanden in die Analyse und ohne Berücksichtigung der Zahnzahl zeigte sich ein erhöhtes Risiko für eine generalisierte PA bei Rauchern, einem hohen GI, höherem Alter und bei längerer Dialysepflichtigkeit (> 3 Jahre) verbunden mit niedrigerem Kt/V (< 1,6). Unter Berücksichtigung der Zahnzahl waren Rauchen, das Alter, eine geringere Zahnzahl, das männliche Geschlecht und ebenso eine längere Dialysepflichtigkeit (> 3 Jahre) verbunden mit niedrigem Kt/V (< 1,6) die entscheidenden Prädiktoren. Schlussfolgerungen: Die Ergebnisse der Untersuchungen lassen sich so zusammenfassen, dass Dialysepatienten eine schlechtere Mundhygiene, mehr fehlende und kariöse Zähne sowie einen schlechteren Parodontalstatus aufwiesen. Sie litten häufiger an einer generalisierten PA. Es ergaben sich Hinweise, dass eine längere Dauer der Dialysepflichtigkeit sowie eine schlechtere Dialyseeffizienz das Auftreten einer generalisierten PA begünstigten. Auf Grund der hohen Rate generalisierter Parodontitiden unter den Dialysepatienten wäre ein erhöhter systemischer Entzündungszustand denkbar. Malnutrition, die veränderte Immunantwort und die chronische urämische Intoxikation tragen zur Anfälligkeit gegenüber Entzündungen und Infektionen bei. Entzündungen sind eine Haupttodesursache unter Dialysepatienten. Die Parodontitis als gut behandelbare Erkrankung führt zur Verringerung des systemischen Entzündungszustandes. Somit könnte eine Parodontitistherapie den Entzündungszustand von Dialysepatienten positiv beeinflussen. Eine größere Beachtung seitens des zahnärztlichen Personals sollte die Verbesserung der Kaufähigkeit bei Dialysepatienten erlangen. Damit könnte eine mögliche Ursache der Malnutrition behoben werden. Dialysepatienten sind potenzielle Empfänger eines Nierentransplantats. Gesunde orale Strukturen sind Voraussetzungen zur Vermeidung von Infektionen und einem Transplantatversagen. Daraus ergibt sich die Notwendigkeit der Verbesserung der Behandlung von Dialysepatienten, insbesondere der Prophylaxe und parodontalen Therapie.:I Inhaltsverzeichnis Seite I Inhaltsverzeichnis 3 II Verzeichnis der Tabellen und Abbildungen 6 III Abkürzungsverzeichnis 8 IV Anhangsverzeichnis 11 1. Einleitung 12 1.1 Parodontitis 13 1.2 Wechselwirkungen der Parodontitis mit systemischen 14 Erkrankungen 1.3 Epidemiologie der Parodontitis 16 1.4 Chronische Nierenerkrankung 17 1.4.1 Allgemeines 17 1.4.2 Definition der chronischen Niereninsuffizienz und Risikofaktoren 18 1.4.3 Nierenersatzverfahren 20 1.5 Epidemiologie der chronischen Niereninsuffizienz 21 1.6 Folgen der chronischen Niereninsuffizienz 21 1.6.1 Systemische Folgen der Urämie 21 1.6.2 Orale und dentale Folgen 22 1.6.3 Parodont und Dialysepflichtigkeit 23 1.6.3.1 Einfluss der Urämie auf das Parodont 23 1.6.3.2 Einfluss der Parodontitis auf den Gesundheitszustand der 23 Dialysepatienten 2. Zielstellungen 25 3. Material und Methode 26 3.1 Studiendesign 26 3.2 Auswahl der Patienten 26 3.3 Klinische Parameter 29 3.3.1 DMF/T–Index 29 3.3.2 Plaqueindex (PI) 29 3.3.3 Gingivaindex (GI) 30 3.3.4 Sondierungstiefe (ST) 30 3.3.5 Attachmentverlust (AV) 31 3.4 Parodontitisfalldefinition 31 3.5 Laborwerte 32 3.6 Bestimmung des Kt/V 32 3.7 Statistische Methoden 33 4. Ergebnisse 34 4.1 Demografische Daten 34 4.2 Charakterisierung der Dialysegruppe 35 4.3 Auswertung der Gesundheitsfragen 36 4.4 Medikation 37 4.5 Angaben zur Zahn- und Mundgesundheit 41 4.6 Veränderungen der zahnärztlichen Therapie nach Bekanntwerden 43 der Dialysepflichtigkeit 4.7 Klinische Parameter 44 4.8 Prävalenz und Schweregrad der Parodontitis 45 4.9 Assoziationsfaktoren mit einer Parodontitis 46 4.9.1 Univariate Analyse 46 4.9.2 Multiple logistische Regressionsanalyse 48 5. Diskussion 54 5.1 Demografische Daten 54 5.2 Charakterisierung der Dialysegruppe 55 5.3 Gesundheitsfragen und Medikamenteneinnahme 57 5.4 Anamnestische Angaben zur Zahn- und Mundgesundheit 58 5.5 Zahn- und Mundgesundheit 59 5.5.1 DMF/T 59 5.5.2 Mundhygiene und Gingivitis 60 5.5.3 Parodontitis 62 5.6 Beurteilung von Parodontitisrisikofaktoren 64 5.6.1 Klassische Parodontitisrisikofaktoren 64 5.6.2 Besonderheiten des Parodontitisrisikos bei Dialysepatienten 65 5.6.2.1 Veränderungen der Immunantwort bei Dialysepatienten 66 5.6.2.2 Malnutrition bei Dialysepatienten 68 5.6.2.3 Dauer der Dialysepflichtigkeit 70 5.6.2.4 Effizienz der Dialyse (Kt/V) 71 5.6.2.5 Sekundärer Hyperparathyreoidismus und Parodontitis 72 5.7 Einfluss der Parodontitis auf die Nierenfunktion 72 5.8 Diskussion methodischer Aspekte, Limitationen der Arbeit 74 und Ausblick auf potenziell weiterführende Untersuchungen 6. Schlussfolgerungen für die Praxis 76 7. Zusammenfassung 78 8. Summary 81 9. Literaturverzeichnis 84 10. Anhang 101 11. Danksagung 116 / Background: Periodontitis is a chronic, destructive infection of the periodontium caused by periodontopathogenic bacteria of the oral biofilm. It results in inflammation and irreversible destruction of periodontal tissue. Remaining untreated, periodontitis causes tooth loss in the long run. The increase of systemic inflammation due to local periodontal inflammation is a biological plausible background of well-known periodontitis interactions with other chronic diseases such as diabetes or atherosclerosis and other cardiovascular diseases. The main causes of death for patients on haemodialysis are cardiovascular diseases and infections. Therefore periodontitis as a highly treatable disease could be a modifiable risk factor for the mortality in haemodialysis patients. On the other hand, terminal kidney insufficiency affects and can worsen the systemic inflammatory status as well as host immune reactions to infections. Additionally, malnutrition and the uraemic milieu contribute to a worse immune answer. Thus, the terminal kidney insufficiency could have some influence on the oral health status, like alteration of the mucosa, xerostomia, changes of dentin, enamel and jaw, and increased susceptibility to inflammation. These oral changes could themselves affect the mastication and the condition of malnutrition adversely. Patients on haemodialysis spend a lot of time on blood purification and do not focus their attention to other medical questions. The aim of the study was to determine, if there are differences in oral and teeth health between dialysis patients and a control group without kidney insufficiency. Predictors of the occurrence of generalized periodontitis should be analysed. Finally, the question should be answered, if there is an influence of haemodialysis on the susceptibility for generalized periodontitis. Methods: 72 dialysis patients of the KfH-Kidney Center Chemnitz were clinically examined, and 147 patients without dialysis from the own dental practice comprised the control group. The plaque index (PI), gingival index (GI), probing depth (ST), attachment loss (AV) and the DMF/T-Index were determined. A questionnaire allowed information about demographic conditions, medical history, oral hygiene habits and the medication of both groups. Data analyses included descriptive statistics, univariate comparison of means, correlation analysis as well as multivariate regression. The statistic programm Bias for windows° version 9.12 was used for statistical evaluation. Results: Age distribution, smoking status and education were similar in both groups. Of the dialysis group were retired (79% vs. 44%, p < 0.0001), and more men attended to the study (74% vs. 52%, p < 0,003). Dialysis patients suffered from more other diseases, such as hypertension (82% vs. 35%, p < 0.0001), diabetes mellitus type II (33% vs. 11%, p = 0.0002), other heart diseases than heart attack (40% vs. 8%, p < 0.0001), or liver diseases (10% vs. 0.5%, p < 0.004), and needed more drugs (97% vs. 58%, p < 0.0001). The causes of kidney insufficiency were comparable with the data in the literature (including 22% glomerulonephritis, 15% diabetic kidney disease, 11% polycystic kidneys and 9% vascular nephropathies). Dialysis patients had more decayed teeth (1.1 vs. 0.2, p < 0.001) and missing teeth (10 vs. 7, p < 0.009). Patients of the control group had more filled teeth (9 vs. 5, p < 0.001). Mean PI, GI and AV were significantly higher in the haemodialysis group (HD) compared to controls. However, the ST was comparable between the groups. A higher proportion of teeth of dialysis patients had an AV of > 5 mm (median 21% vs 13% in the control group, p = 0.011). HD-patients suffered more frequently from advanced generalized periodontitis (44% vs. 29%, p < 0,03). Generalized periodontitis (g-PA) was defined by at least 30% of the teeth with proximal AV of 5 mm or more. In the anamnesis a PA was more renowned among the HD-patients (82% vs. 40%, p < 0.001) but was less treated (49% vs. 14%, p < 0,001). These patients also observed gingival bleeding more often (80% vs. 60%, p < 0.003). There were no differences between the frequency of tooth brushing and the causes to go to a dentist. However, patients of the control group used other tools than tooth brush to clean teeth more often, and participated more frequently in maintenance programs. After dentist became known the necessity of dialysis, 57% of the patients did not receive changes in dental treatment, and only 15% of these patients were offered any prophylaxis. In the univariate analysis PI, GI and age were significant association factors for the percentage of teeth with AV > 5mm in both groups. In the control group, men and diabetics showed more frequently teeth with at least moderate periodontitis. But these could not be observed in the dialysis group. In the dialysis group the multiple logistic regressions analysis showed that a higher PI, longer time on dialysis, a worse Kt/V and a less BMI are independent, significant risk factors for a g-PA. In the control group age, smoking and GI are the risk factors for a generalized periodontitis. The multiple logistic regressions analysis of the complete study population revealed that smoking, GI, age and longer time on dialysis (> 3 years) together with a worse Kt/V (< 1,6) is associated with a higher risk for a generalized periodontitis. Including the teeth number in the model, smoking, age, less count of teeth, male gender and also longer time on dialysis and a worse Kt/V were the crucial predictors. Summary: Hemodialysis patients had a worse oral hygiene, less and more decayed teeth, worse periodontal conditions. Especially, they suffered more often from generalized periodontitis. There was some evidence that the time on dialysis and the efficiency of dialysis treatment has an influence on the extent and severity of a periodontitis. Due to the high frequency of generalized periodontitis, it is conceivable that in dialysis patients an increased systemic inflammation status is possible. Malnutrition, altered immune resistance and chronic uremic intoxication additionally contribute to vulnerability against inflammations and infections. Inflammations are a main cause for the high mortality of dialysis patients. Periodontitis is a well treatable disease reducing systemic inflammatory burden. Therefore, periodontitis therapy could affect the inflammatory status positively in these patients. Furthermore, dialysis patients need more attention of dental care providers to improve the ability to bite. Thereby, one cause of malnutrition could be removed. Dialysis patients are potential recipients of a kidney transplant. A healthy oral system is a well-known condition to avoid infection and transplant failure. Thus, the treatment of dialysis patients, especially the prophylaxis and periodontal treatments should be improved.:I Inhaltsverzeichnis Seite I Inhaltsverzeichnis 3 II Verzeichnis der Tabellen und Abbildungen 6 III Abkürzungsverzeichnis 8 IV Anhangsverzeichnis 11 1. Einleitung 12 1.1 Parodontitis 13 1.2 Wechselwirkungen der Parodontitis mit systemischen 14 Erkrankungen 1.3 Epidemiologie der Parodontitis 16 1.4 Chronische Nierenerkrankung 17 1.4.1 Allgemeines 17 1.4.2 Definition der chronischen Niereninsuffizienz und Risikofaktoren 18 1.4.3 Nierenersatzverfahren 20 1.5 Epidemiologie der chronischen Niereninsuffizienz 21 1.6 Folgen der chronischen Niereninsuffizienz 21 1.6.1 Systemische Folgen der Urämie 21 1.6.2 Orale und dentale Folgen 22 1.6.3 Parodont und Dialysepflichtigkeit 23 1.6.3.1 Einfluss der Urämie auf das Parodont 23 1.6.3.2 Einfluss der Parodontitis auf den Gesundheitszustand der 23 Dialysepatienten 2. Zielstellungen 25 3. Material und Methode 26 3.1 Studiendesign 26 3.2 Auswahl der Patienten 26 3.3 Klinische Parameter 29 3.3.1 DMF/T–Index 29 3.3.2 Plaqueindex (PI) 29 3.3.3 Gingivaindex (GI) 30 3.3.4 Sondierungstiefe (ST) 30 3.3.5 Attachmentverlust (AV) 31 3.4 Parodontitisfalldefinition 31 3.5 Laborwerte 32 3.6 Bestimmung des Kt/V 32 3.7 Statistische Methoden 33 4. Ergebnisse 34 4.1 Demografische Daten 34 4.2 Charakterisierung der Dialysegruppe 35 4.3 Auswertung der Gesundheitsfragen 36 4.4 Medikation 37 4.5 Angaben zur Zahn- und Mundgesundheit 41 4.6 Veränderungen der zahnärztlichen Therapie nach Bekanntwerden 43 der Dialysepflichtigkeit 4.7 Klinische Parameter 44 4.8 Prävalenz und Schweregrad der Parodontitis 45 4.9 Assoziationsfaktoren mit einer Parodontitis 46 4.9.1 Univariate Analyse 46 4.9.2 Multiple logistische Regressionsanalyse 48 5. Diskussion 54 5.1 Demografische Daten 54 5.2 Charakterisierung der Dialysegruppe 55 5.3 Gesundheitsfragen und Medikamenteneinnahme 57 5.4 Anamnestische Angaben zur Zahn- und Mundgesundheit 58 5.5 Zahn- und Mundgesundheit 59 5.5.1 DMF/T 59 5.5.2 Mundhygiene und Gingivitis 60 5.5.3 Parodontitis 62 5.6 Beurteilung von Parodontitisrisikofaktoren 64 5.6.1 Klassische Parodontitisrisikofaktoren 64 5.6.2 Besonderheiten des Parodontitisrisikos bei Dialysepatienten 65 5.6.2.1 Veränderungen der Immunantwort bei Dialysepatienten 66 5.6.2.2 Malnutrition bei Dialysepatienten 68 5.6.2.3 Dauer der Dialysepflichtigkeit 70 5.6.2.4 Effizienz der Dialyse (Kt/V) 71 5.6.2.5 Sekundärer Hyperparathyreoidismus und Parodontitis 72 5.7 Einfluss der Parodontitis auf die Nierenfunktion 72 5.8 Diskussion methodischer Aspekte, Limitationen der Arbeit 74 und Ausblick auf potenziell weiterführende Untersuchungen 6. Schlussfolgerungen für die Praxis 76 7. Zusammenfassung 78 8. Summary 81 9. Literaturverzeichnis 84 10. Anhang 101 11. Danksagung 116

São sistematizados e discutidos aspectos conceituais e operacionais da vigilãncia epidemiológica e do controle de eventos adversos à saúde, da monitorização em saúde pública, da pesquisa em saúde pública, do controle sanitário de produtos de consumo humano, riscos ambientais e do exercício profissional na área biomédica e, por fim, do apoio laboratorial aos serviços de saúde, vigilância epidemiológica e à pesquisa. Com fundamento nessa sistematização e discussão, é proposto um modelo de vigilância epidemiológica compatível com as diretrizes constitucionais vigentes e, portanto, aplicável, com as adaptações necessárias, ao processo de reorganização do Sistema Nacional de Saúde. Nesse modelo, os sistemas de vigilância epidemiológica para específicos eventos adversos à saúde seriam compostos por três sub-sistemas: a) Sub-sistema de informação para ações de controle: com a atribuição de coletar e analisar sistematicamente dados de específicos eventos adversos à saúde e/ou dos respectivos programas de controle, como também da coleta esporádica de informações por meio de inqüéritos e investigações epidemiológicas de campo. Neste sub-sistema as informações obtidas seriam rapidamente analisadas, para, com base nas recomendações técnicas disponíveis ou em normas já existentes, indicar as medidas imediatas de controle; b) Sub-sistema de inteligência epidemiológica: com a atribuição da análise sistemática dos dados recebidos do correspondente sub-sistema de informação para ações de controle para, incorporando os conhecimentos científicos e tecnológicos disponíveis, elaborar recomendações com as bases técnicas para as ações de controle de agravos específicos à saúde, divulgando-as regularmente a todos que delas necessitam. Este sub-sistema deverá identificar lacunas no conhecimento científico e tecnológico, referentes à especificos eventos adversos à saúde, induzindo pesquisas com vistas a superá-las. Deverá ainda constituir o primeiro nivel de incorporação, pelo Sistema Nacional de Saúde, do conhecimento produzido no campo da investigação cientifica e tecnológica; c) Sub-sistema de pesquisa: com a atribuição de desenvolver investigações cientificas e tecnológicas, induzidas pelo sub-sistema de inteligência epidemiológica e voltadas à solução de problemas emergentes e/ou prioritários em saúde pública. Nesse modelo os sistemas de vigilância para especificos agravos à saúde têm, obrigatoriamente, três componentes: a) coleta da informação; b) análise; c) ampla disseminação das informações analisadas acrescidas de recomendações com as bases técnicas para as ações de controle. Por sua vez, constituem a inteligência do Sistema Nacional de Saúde para específicos agravos à saúde, oferecendo condições técnicas para maior eficiência e eficácia e ainda, contínuo aprimoramento e atualização dos programas de saúde. / Conceptual and operational aspects of epidemiologic surveillance of adverse health events, public health monitoring, research in public health, sanitary control of human consuming products, risk from environment and from medical technologies, and laboratory support for health services, epidemiological surveillance and research are systematized and discussed. Based on this systematization and discussion it is proposed a concept of epidemiologic surveillance which is compatible with the established constitutional guiding, and thence applicable for reorganization process of National Health System, after requisitive adjusting. In this approach the Epidemiological Surveillance System for specific adverse health events would be consisted of three subsystems: a) Information for control actions subsystem: which assures the systematic collection and analysis of data on specific adverse health events and/or of the respective control programs, and of the sporadic collection of data by means of field epidemiological inquiring and investigation. In this subsystem the obtained data will be promptly analysed in order to identify the immediate measures, based on available technical recommendations or established guides or rules; b) Epidemiological intelligence subsystem: which conducts the systematic analysis of data received from the respective information subsystem control actions in order to elaborate recommendations with a technical basis of specific adverse health events related to a control intervention, and publishing them regularly and widely to all concerned, after being incorporated into available scientific and technologic knowledge. This subsystem should identify the gaps in the scientific and technologic knowledge related to the specific adverse health events, and induce researches with the purpose of overcoming these areas of weakness. It should also constitute the first level of incorporation of the knowledge in the scientific and technologic investigation are a by National Health System; c) Research subsystem: which is responsible for scientific and technologic investigation development by epidemiological intelligence subsystem and aimed at solving the emerging and/or priority problems in public health. In this approach the surveillance systems for specific adverse health events require three components: a) the information data collection; b) the data analysis; c) the wide diffusion of the analysed information data including the recommendation with technical support for control proceedings. In its turn, these components constitute the National Health System inteliggence for specific adverse health events to offer technical conditions for high efficiency and efficacy, and also a continuos improvement and modernization of health programs.