ABSTRACT STUDENT ACCESS TO HIGHER EDUCATION A HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF LANDMARK SUPREME COURT CASES MISSOURI EX. REL. GAINES V. CANADA, REGISTRAR OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI, 1938, AND GRUTTER V. BOLLINGER, 2003 by Ansley Knox Daniel The purpose of this study is to identify primary themes related to student access to higher education and establishing diversity in higher education classrooms through a comparative analysis of the 1938 Gaines v. Canada case and the 2003 Grutter v. Bollinger case. Both of these Supreme Court opinions have significantly impacted student access to higher education. The landmark ruling in Gaines inaugurated a new and ground-breaking series of legal victories that opened minority student access to higher education and eventually to secondary education. In Grutter, the Supreme Court upheld the use of race as one of many factors that can be used to consider in the student admissions process in higher education to encourage diversity in student populations and in leadership opportunities. Using a methodology of historiography of education law, the intention of this study is to expand the historical and legal implications of the Gaines and Grutter cases, focusing on the application of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment and the relationship between the outcomes of the cases and the judicial interpretation employed by the justices. In Grutter, while considering narrow-tailoring and strict scrutiny to check for the legal development and implementation of affirmative action policies, the justices prioritize providing equal access to higher education for all students and ensuring meaningful diversity in university classrooms for an extended, but still limited, time period. It is valuable for historians of the law and members of the legal profession to consider the notion of active liberty articulated by Justice Stephen Breyer (2005) when developing their interpretation of the Equal Protection Clause and how it should be applied.

This thesis entitled The Issue of Race in the Jurisprudence of the Supreme Court of the United States: The Evolving Interpretation of the Equal Protection Clause analyses the jurisprudence of the Supreme Court of the United States concerning Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States, in particular the following decisions: Plessy v. Ferguson, Sweatt v. Painter, Brown v. Board of Education, Topeka, Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, Grutter v. Bollinger, Gratz v. Bollinger, Fisher v. University of Texas and Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action. The analysis of the above- mentioned decisions illustrates the evolution of the philosophical background of the Supreme Court. After the Second World War, the natural-law legal philosophy began influencing the Justices and slightly overshadowed the positive-law current that was predominant in the pre- War era, in particular in the 19th century. This new philosophical background of the High Court help to constitutionally entrench the affirmative action policies by Justice Powell's opinion in Bakke and particularly by Grutter. However, the natural-law current has never become as dominant as the positive-law one in the 19th century, and as shown in Grutter's companion case of Gratz...

Same-sex marriage is a subject that has been heavily discussed and argued since the concept of marriage came into existence. Marriage is a relationship that most American citizens are entitled to although it is not yet a fundamental right. As of a very recent court decision, Strawser v. Strange, Civil Action No. 14-0424-CG-C1 finalized on February 9, 2015, Alabama has legalized same-sex marriage; furthermore, thirty-seven states now recognize the legality of same-sex marriage. Marriage, whether it is between a heterosexual or a homosexual couple, should be a fundamental right enjoyed by all. This thesis will explain why same-sex marriage should be a fundamental right. The research presented in this thesis will be scrutinized and thoroughly examined showing the obstacles that same-sex couples face when wanting to legally marry. The United States Constitution, the Due Process Clause, and the Equal Protection Clause will be analyzed and discussed to prove that all fifty states should allow same-sex couples to wed. Citizens view what constitutes a marriage differently depending on their upbringing and residence. This thesis will illustrate why same-sex marriage has been such a widely discussed topic, and it will investigate the influence of religion and the church. Historically, the tradition of marriage has always been between one man and one woman. By examining how the tradition of marriage is changing and using case law decisions, an argument can be formed that marriage should be a fundamental right for all people.

A regulação contra a discriminação de minorias pelos meios de comunicação de massa está normalmente restrita na maioria dos países (incluindo o Brasil) ao direito penal e a algumas sanções administrativas. Menor atenção é dada ao esfera civil. O a imagem minorias pode reforçar estereótipos, limitados à estigmatização de grupo e, claramente, provocar danos para cada membro dessa minoria. Eu diria que, embora o direito à própria imagem seja reconhecido como um direito pessoal, ele tem tanto aspectos individuais, quanto coletivos. Além disso, defendo que a estigmatização grupal acarretaria danos muito maiores para minorias, e que merece proteção jurídica. No entanto, desenhar os remédios legais capazes de garantir esta proteção não é uma tarefa fácil, e pode exigir uma nova doutrina legal. Na verdade, tal desenho deve reconciliar a reparação por danos individuais e coletivos, contra a exigência de um desempenho específico que exige a restauração da imagem do grupo e, acima disso, lidar com a regulação das concessões de TV e de rádio e com matérias de censura. Defendo o uso de direitos de resposta ou de retificação como uma medida possível para fazer valer os direitos das minorias. Ao forçar os violadores a produzirem e transmitirem as respostas das minorias para retrato injusto, estamos dando a devida voz e compensação para elas. / The legal discipline for prejudicial depict of minorities by mass media vehicles is usually restricted in most countries (including Brazil) to criminal law and some administrative sanctions. Much less attention is paid to civil litigation. The portrayal of those minorities could reinforce stereotypes to the limit of group stigmatization, and clearly give rise to damages to each member of this minority. I would argue that, although the right to ones own image is acknowledged as a personal right, it has both individual and collective aspects. Furthermore, I claim the damages a prejudicial characterization could entail would be far greater for minorities, and deserves legal protection. However, to design the legal remedies able to assure this protection is not an easy task, and may require a new legal doctrine. Indeed, such approach should reconcile individual and collective reparation for damages, tradeoff the payment of such damages against the demand for a specific performance requiring the restoration of the group image and, on top of that, deal with public regulation of TV and Radio concessions and censorship concerns. I personally advocate the use of the rights of reply or correction as one possible measure to enforce minority rights. By forcing violators to produce and broadcast the answers of minorities to unfair portrait, we are giving appropriate voice and compensation to them.

A regulação contra a discriminação de minorias pelos meios de comunicação de massa está normalmente restrita na maioria dos países (incluindo o Brasil) ao direito penal e a algumas sanções administrativas. Menor atenção é dada ao esfera civil. O a imagem minorias pode reforçar estereótipos, limitados à estigmatização de grupo e, claramente, provocar danos para cada membro dessa minoria. Eu diria que, embora o direito à própria imagem seja reconhecido como um direito pessoal, ele tem tanto aspectos individuais, quanto coletivos. Além disso, defendo que a estigmatização grupal acarretaria danos muito maiores para minorias, e que merece proteção jurídica. No entanto, desenhar os remédios legais capazes de garantir esta proteção não é uma tarefa fácil, e pode exigir uma nova doutrina legal. Na verdade, tal desenho deve reconciliar a reparação por danos individuais e coletivos, contra a exigência de um desempenho específico que exige a restauração da imagem do grupo e, acima disso, lidar com a regulação das concessões de TV e de rádio e com matérias de censura. Defendo o uso de direitos de resposta ou de retificação como uma medida possível para fazer valer os direitos das minorias. Ao forçar os violadores a produzirem e transmitirem as respostas das minorias para retrato injusto, estamos dando a devida voz e compensação para elas. / The legal discipline for prejudicial depict of minorities by mass media vehicles is usually restricted in most countries (including Brazil) to criminal law and some administrative sanctions. Much less attention is paid to civil litigation. The portrayal of those minorities could reinforce stereotypes to the limit of group stigmatization, and clearly give rise to damages to each member of this minority. I would argue that, although the right to ones own image is acknowledged as a personal right, it has both individual and collective aspects. Furthermore, I claim the damages a prejudicial characterization could entail would be far greater for minorities, and deserves legal protection. However, to design the legal remedies able to assure this protection is not an easy task, and may require a new legal doctrine. Indeed, such approach should reconcile individual and collective reparation for damages, tradeoff the payment of such damages against the demand for a specific performance requiring the restoration of the group image and, on top of that, deal with public regulation of TV and Radio concessions and censorship concerns. I personally advocate the use of the rights of reply or correction as one possible measure to enforce minority rights. By forcing violators to produce and broadcast the answers of minorities to unfair portrait, we are giving appropriate voice and compensation to them.