Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-19T12:56:43Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 dissertacao Adriana.pdf: 1061561 bytes, checksum: fdd7fb29d8af4d9ba71f59fcbab46042 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-11-01 / Although they are found at trace levels in the environment, the metals Cd, Ni, Cr, Zn, Cu and Pb have received numerous studies due to the toxic potential. Some of them have no known biological function such as Pb and Hg. However, these metals, at certain concentrations, offer risk for aquatic organisms. This risk, Beyond to the total concentration of them, is associated with their mobility in environmental matrices. To assess the risk of trace metals in sediments from mangrove Tibiri River, located on the Maranhão island, This study used the guide values developed by environmental agencies based on the total concentration of these elements. The results showed that the levels were below the metal TEL (Threshold effect level) and ERL (Effect low range), ranges associated with occasional adverse biological effects for aquatic life. The concentrations of trace metals found in sediments are the same order of magnitude of the background prescribed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The order of mobility (considering the sum of the first three most mobile fractions) was: Ni (24%)> Zn (20.6%)> Cu (14.5%)> Pb (1.9%)> Cd = Cr (not detected). The low mobility values contribute to minimizing the environmental risk of trace metals. / Embora sejam encontrados em níveis de traço no meio ambiente, os metais Cd, Ni, Cr, Zn, Cu e Pb têm recebido inúmeros estudos em função de seu potencial tóxico. Alguns deles não possuem função biológica conhecida como é o caso do Pb e Hg. Porém, todos estes metais, em determinadas concentrações, oferecem risco aos organismos. Este risco, além da concentração total dos mesmos, está associado à mobilidade deles nas matrizes ambientais. Para se avaliar o risco dos metais traço nos sedimentos de manguezal do Rio Tibiri, localizado na Ilha do maranhão, este estudo dispôs de valores guias desenvolvidos por agências ambientais, baseados na concentração total destes elementos. Os resultados demonstraram que os níveis de metal estavam abaixo do TEL (Threshold effect level) e do ERL (Effect range low), faixas associadas a efeitos biológicos adversos ocasionais para a vida aquática. As concentrações de metais traço encontrados nos sedimentos estão na mesma ordem de grandeza dos valores basais prescritos pela National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). A ordem de mobilidade (considerando a soma das três primeiras frações mais móveis) foi a seguinte: Ni (24%) > Zn (20,6%)> Cu (14,5%)> Pb (1,9%) > Cd = Cr (não detectado). Os baixos valores de mobilidade contribuem para minimização do risco ambiental dos metais traço.

Produtos recalcitrantes como os bifenilos policlorados (PCBs) e hidrocarbonetos têm chamado a atenção de pesquisadores em diversas partes do mundo devido a sua persistência e efeitos nocivos ao meio ambiente e ao homem. O conhecimento da biodiversidade genotípica e fenotípica dos microrganismos degradadores de compostos xenobióticos é de grande importância para a compreensão dos aspectos ecológicos envolvidos na biodegradação microbiana; incluindo a dispersão geográfica das bactérias biodegradadoras que, pode também ser considerada e utilizada como modelo para a compreensão de padrões de distribuição geográfica de microrganismos autóctones do ambiente. Devido a presença destes compostos na Baía de Santos é de grande interesse o presente estudo da diversidade microbiana de isolados neste ambiente. Este trabalho visou investigar a ocorrência e diversidade de bactérias capazes de degradar PCBs e hidrocarbonetos nas amostras coletadas no estuário de Santos. Para o estudo destas amostras foram utilizadas técnicas tradicionais de cultivo e análise química de degradação de hidrocarbonetos e PCBs. Técnicas de biologia molecular também foram aplicadas para estudar os diferentes perfis genotípicos obtidos por BOX-PCR. Além disso, foi verificada a presença de genes catabólicos nestes microrganismos e também foi realizada a identificação dos mesmos através da técnica de seqüenciamento do gene 16SrRNA. Como resultado deste estudo, foram obtidos 61 isolados que foram submetidos à técnica de rep-PCR, empregando o iniciador BOX-A1R obtendo-se 30 amplificações com 28 padrões de bandas distintos. Esses isolados, foram então, testados para 6 genes catabólicos distintos, obtendo-se resultado positivo para os genes todC1 (tolueno), ndoB (naftaleno), xylE (xileno) e bphA (bifenilo). No entanto não foram observado genótipos distintos para as áreas afetadas. Nos testes de degradação foram obtidos 12 isolados degradadores de PCBs e 44 isolados degradadores de hidrocarbonetos. Nas análises de seqüenciamento do gene 16SrRNA, foram obtidos 11 gêneros distintos de bactérias, sendo que a maioria dos isolados se encontravam dentro do grupo filogenético de Proteobactéria na subdivisão Gama Proteobactéria. A partir dos resultados de degradação, da pesquisa dos genes catabólicos e dos parâmetros físico-químicos, foi possível observar que a área estudada apresenta um forte potencial para biorremediação com microrganismos autóctones degradadores de hidrocarbonetos e PCBs. / Recalcitrant compounds such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and hydrocarbons have attracted researcher’s attention all over the world, because of their persistence and side effects to the environment and to the humanity. The knowledge of genotypic an phenotypic biodiversity of xenobiotic compound degrading-microorganisms is extremely important for the comprehension of ecological aspects involved in microbial biodegradation; including the biodegrading-bacteria geographic dispersion that may also consider and provide a model for the comprehension of the patterns of geographic distribution of autochthonous microorganisms in the environment. Because of the presence of these compounds in Santos Estuary, it is very important the present study of microbial diversity in this environment. The purpose of this work is to investigate the occurrence and the bacterial diversity that are able to degrade PCBs and hydrocarbons in samples of the Santos Estuary. For that, samples were collected and analyzed using traditional techniques of culturing and chemical analyses of PCBs and hydrocarbons biodegradation. Molecular Biology techniques were also used to determine the presence of catabolic genes, to study the different genotypic patterns of BOX-PCR and to identify the microorganisms. As a result, 61 isolates were obtained, and then they were amplified with the BOX-PCR primer resulting in 30 amplicons with 28 different band patterns. These isolates were then tested for 6 distinct catabolic genes with positive results for the todC1 (toluene), ndoB (naphthalene), xylE (xylene) and bphA (biphenyl) genes. In the degradation tests, 12 PCBs degrading-isolates and 44 hydrocarbons degrading-isolates were obtained. As a result of the identification, was obtained 11 different genera of bacteria. Besides, most of the microorganisms belonged to the Gamma Proteobacteria subdivision. As a conclusion of these results and from the chemical and physical parameters studied in this work, was possible to notice that the studied area presents a noticeable potential for bioremediation with hydrocarbons and PCBs autochthonous degrading-microorganisms.

O objetivo deste trabalho foi estudar a composição da avifauna aquática, a diversidade, suas abundâncias, a variação mensal e sazonal das populações e entender a relação desses fatores com a variação de maré na Laguna da Ilha Comprida. Ocorreram 6193 indivíduos referentes a 54 espécies, a diversidade de acordo com o Índice de Shannon foi 2,7036. Não houve diferença estatística no número total de indivíduos entre os meses e estações. Já a riqueza variou, sendo o maior valor na primavera, explicada pela ocorrência de espécies visitantes do hemisfério norte durante a migração para o sul. Houve correlação negativa entre a riqueza de espécies, número de indivíduos e diversidade, com a oscilação da maré, pois conforme a maré diminuía, aumentava a área disponível para descanso e forrageio. A Família Ardeidae apresentou correlação negativa mais forte em relação à amplitude de maré ao ser comparada as Famílias Scolopacidae e Charadriidae. Este fato ocorreu pela presença de Egreta caerulea que depende da maré baixa para forragear. A Laguna é uma importante área para avifauna aquática utilizada para alimentação e descanso, principalmente na maré baixa, além de ponto de parada para aves costeiras na migração para o sul durante a primavera. / The objectives of this work was to study the composition of aquatic bird, its diversity, abundance, monthly and seasonal variation of the bird populations and understand the relation of these factors with tidal variation at Laguna da Ilha Comprida Island. We registered 6193 individuals of bird referring to 54 species, being that the Shannon diversity index was 2,7036. There were not statistics difference between total number of individuals, the months and seasons. However there was variation of the species richness, being the biggest valor in the spring, explained for the occurrence of visiting species of north hemisphere during the migration for the south. There were negative correlation enters the species richness, individual number and diversity with the tidal oscillation. Because when the tide was low, increase the area available for rest and foraging. The Ardeidae family presented stronger negative correlation in relation of tidal variation when comparative being the Families Scolopacidae and Charadriidae. This fact occurred for the presence of Egreta caerulea that depends on the low tide to foraging. The Laguna is an important aquatic area for bird, used for feeding and rest, during the low tide and stopover for coastal birds in the migration for the south during the spring

L’estuaire de Seine est l’un des plus pollués de l’hémisphère nord dû notamment à ses activités urbaines et agricoles de son bassin versant. Malgré cela le copépode E. affinis représente 90 % de la biomasse zooplanctonique en estuaire de Seine. L’objectif de la thèse était de développer un nouveau Bio-essAi Survie Croissance copépode (BASIC) à l’aide du copépode E. affinis sur différentes matrices environnementales. Dans un premier temps, le bio-essai a été mise au point à l’aide de sédiments enrobés avec des molécules modèles représentatives de la contamination estuarienne (APs, HAPS et PCBs) avant d’être validé, par la suite, sur des sédiments naturels de l’estuaire de Seine. Le bio-essai à ensuite été appliqué en solution au 4-NP et au PCB 126 et sur Vibrio anguillarum issus de l’estuaire de Seine. Un protocole d’exposition multi-générationnel a été appliqué dans les mêmes conditions pendant trois générations. Les résultats recensés ont montré un effet sur le développement larvaire lors des expositions après 6 jours d’expositions à des sédiments enrobés. Dans le cadre des expositions en solution, des résultats similaires ont été obtenus, notamment, un retard de croissance après deux jours d’exposition au 4-NP et au PCB 126 corrélé avec les niveaux d’activité chitobiase. En revanche, à la fin de l’expérimentation ce résultat n’est plus observé. Lors des expositions à Vibrio anguillarum, une augmentation de l’activité chitobiase a été enregistrée les premiers jours de l’exposition, impliquant une augmentation de la croissance au sixième jour. Dans le cadre des expérimentions multi-générationnelle, le copépode semble se stabiliser à la troisième génération. / Seine estuary is one of the most polluted in the northern hemisphere largely due to its urban and agricultural activities of its watershed. Despite this the copepod E. affinis represents 90% of zooplankton biomass in the Seine estuary. The aim of the thesis was to develop a new bioassay Survival Growth copepod with the copepod E. affinis on various environmental matrices. Initially, the bioassay was developed using sediments spiked with molecules representative models of estuarine contamination (APs, PAHS and PCBs) before being validated on natural sediments of the Seine estuary. The bioassay was applied in solution 4-NP and PCB 126 and Vibrio anguillarum from the Seine estuary. A multi-generational exposure protocol was applied under the same conditions for three generations. The results showed an effect on larval development after 6 days of exposure to sediments. In solution, similar results were obtained, including, retarded growth after two days of exposure to 4-NP and PCB 126 correlated with chitobiase activity levels. However, at the end of the experiment the result is not observed. At exposition with Vibrio anguillarum, increased activity was recorded chitobiase the first days, involving an increase in growth in the sixth day. As part of the multi-generational experimenting, the copepod appears to be stabilizing at the third generation.

Discriminer l'influence des activités humaines de celle des processus naturels sur les changements environnementaux récents est un enjeu scientifique important. Dans ce but, les mollusques et les foraminifères fossiles des Pertuis Charentais (ouest de la France) ainsi que les sédiments déposés pendant l'Holocène dont ils sont issus ont été étudiés. L'objet d'étude central est un drapage vaseux qui constitue une grande partie du comblement sédimentaire terminal des Pertuis. Les résultats obtenus montrent qu'il est composé de sédiments fins d'origine continentale déposés à partir de 1400 AD. Il est la conséquence d'une augmentation de l'érosion des sols, favorisée par la déforestation entreprise au Moyen-Age. Le taux de sédimentation de cette vase a augmenté brutalement, suite à une période d'augmentation des précipitations hivernales à la fin du Petit Age Glaciaire qui a accéléré l'érosion des sols sur ces territoires fragilisés car déforestés. Le dépôt brutal de sédiments fins dans les Pertuis Charentais a eu peu de répercussions sur les communautés de mollusques benthiques, excepté l'extinction locale du bivalve \textit{Lepton squamosum} de la baie de Marennes-Oléron. En revanche, l'augmentation des apports sédimentaires a été à l'origine d'une succession écologique au sein des communautés de foraminifères (résistance - perturbation - adaptation). Les résultats obtenus démontrent comment des milieux perturbés par les activités humaines deviennent plus sensibles aux changements climatiques. Ils soulignent aussi le potentiel de la paléoécologie dans la compréhension des changements environnementaux récents dans les zones côtières à une échelle millénaire à séculaire. / Unraveling the respective influence of human activities and natural processes on recent environmental changes is a critical issue. In this respect, fossil molluscs and foraminifers of the Pertuis Charentais area (western France) as well as the sediments deposited during the Holocene they originate from have been studied. The study is focused on a mud drape that corresponds to the upper, most recent sediment infill of the area. The results show that it is composed of fine grained sediments originating from the adjacent catchments deposited from 1400 AD onwards. This major environmental change was the consequence of an increase in soil erosion promoted by intense deforestation started during the Middle Ages. Mud sedimentation rate increased suddenly in ca. 1760 AD, owing to a short-lived increase of winter rainfall which triggered more intense soil erosion on vulnerable deforested lands. The sharp deposition of fine grained sediments in the Pertuis Charentais has had few consequences on the past benthic mollusc communities, except the local extinction of the bivalve \textit{Lepton squamosum} in the Marennes-Oléron Bay. On the contrary, the increase in mud supply has triggered an ecological succession among benthic foraminifer communities (resistance - disturbance - adaptation). As a whole, the results demonstrate that environments disrupted by human activities become more sensitive to high-frequency climate changes. They also highlight the potential of paleoecology for a better understanding of recent environmental changes occurring within coastal areas at a millennial to centennial scale.

The spatial and temporal (seasonal and diel) patterns in the hyperbenthic community structure (>500 μm) was investigated in the warm temperate, permanently open Kariega Estuary situated along the south-eastern coastline of South Africa. Spatial and seasonal patterns in the hyperbenthic community structure were assessed monthly at six stations along the length of the estuary over a period of twelve months. Data were collected using a modified hyperbenthic sledge, comprising two super-imposed nets. Physico-chemical data indicate the presence of a constant reverse salinity gradient, with highest salinities measured in the upper reaches and lowest at the mouth of the estuary. Strong seasonal patterns in temperature, dissolved oxygen and total chlorophyll-a (chl-a) concentrations were evident. Total average hyperbenthic densities ranged between 0.04 and 166 ind.m-3 in the lower net and between 0.12 and 225 ind.m-3 in the upper net. Hyperbenthic biomass values ranged between 0.02 and 11.9 mg.dry weight.m-3 in the lower net and between 0.02 and 17.4 mg.dry weight.m-3 in the upper net. A spatial and temporal pattern in total densities was detected with an increase in abundance over the period of September to October 2008 particularly in the middle reaches (Stations 3 and 4). Both the lower and upper nets were numerically dominated by decapods (mainly brachyuran crab zoeae) with the exception of June and July 2008 when mysids (mainly Mesopodopsis wooldridgei) dominated, making up 72.4 ± 58.14% of the total abundance in the lower net. A redundancy analysis (RDA) indicated that 99.2% of the variance in the hyperbenthic community structure could be explained by the first two canonical axes. Axis one, which accounted for 96.8% of the total variation detected in the ordination plot was highly correlated with sedimentary organic content and to a lesser extent the chl-a concentration within the Kariega Estuary. The correlations with the second canonical axis (2.4%) were less obvious, however, salinity and seston concentration were weakly correlated with this axis. Diel variability in the hyperbenthic community structure was assessed during March 2009. Samples were collected during the day and night (n = 6 for each period) using sampling gear described above. Total average hyperbenthic densities during the day (497.9 ± 254.1 ind.m-3) were significantly higher than night-time estimates (129.9 ± 38.5 ind.m-3; p<0.05). There were no significant differences in the average dayand night-time estimates of hyperbenthic biomass (p>0.05). A hierarchical cluster analysis identified two significantly distinct groupings, designated the day and night samples. Results from the SIMPER procedure indicated that the high densities of crab zoeae recorded during the day-time accounted for the majority of the dissimilarity between the day and night groupings (44.7%). In addition, it is apparent that several benthic species, especially from the cumacean and isopod orders, were absent from the hyperbenthos during the day-time and emerged into the water column at night.

This study examined the abundance, distribution, and spatiotemporal variation of palaemonid shrimp species in relation to season and salinity in the Shark River Estuary, Everglades National Park (ENP), Florida, USA. Five palaemonid species occurred in the samples: Palaemonetes paludosus, P. pugio, P. intermedius, Palaemon floridanus, and Leander paulensis; L. paulensis was collected only during the wet season. Overall, shrimp catches in traps doubled in the dry season. Catches in the upper estuary were dominated by P. paludosus, particularly in the wet season, while catch per unit effort (CPUE) at the most downstream, highest salinity sites were dominated by Palaemon floridanus. At mid-estuary, several species co-occurred. To investigate spatiotemporal shifts in trophic position of the shrimp, stable-isotope analysis was used. δ15N analyses revealed most species filled similar roles in the community, with the exception of P. paludosus, which shifted from enrichment in the dry season to depletion in the wet season. Palaemonid δ13C values varied between sites and seasons, with shrimp in upstream sites being more depleted than downstream sites. These data suggest that changes in salinity regimes resulting from restoration may result in species replacement, with potential implications for trophic dynamics.

Torrecillas Lagoon in the North Coast of Puerto Rico has experienced extensive anthropogenic influence over the past 400 years. Elevated concentrations of Potential Toxic Elements (PTEs) have been reported in surficial sediments. The main goal of this dissertation was to implement in Puerto Rico the use of benthic foraminifers as a bioindicators of PTEs and to compare the impact of Cu(II) on field samples with results of experimental work using cultures. Analyses included geochemical assessment for bulk and carbonate- soluble bioavailable concentrations of PTEs in surface, core and pore-water samples, as well as analyses of grain-size, Percent Total Organic Carbon (%TOC), Percent Carbonate (%CO3), foraminiferal assemblages and distribution, and ecological indices. PTEs of concern (Cu, Zn, Ni, Pb, Cr, As, Li, Se, Fe, Mn, V, Se) have relatively uniform spatial distributions. Areas with higher concentrations are associated with higher %TOC and %mud, as well as with anoxic conditions. Temporal distributions show limited variability although an overall decrease in enrichment indicates improvement of environmental conditions in the 20th century. Ammonia beccarii, Quinquloculina rhodiensis, Q. seminulum, and Ammobaculites agglutinans are the dominant foraminifers in the lagoon and are characteristic of stressed coastal environments. Several PTEs, including bioavailable Cu and Zn are negatively correlated with the dominant foraminiferal taxa and with diversity indices, indicating that these pollutants are influencing the spatial and temporal distributions of foraminiferal assemblages. Ammonia beccarii abundance negatively correlates with bulk concentration of Cu(II) and exhibits no correlation with its bioavailable fraction. These observations suggest that fractionation and bioavailability of PTEs need to be considered more in depth as influences on ecological indices and foraminiferal behavior. Exchangeable and oxidizable fractions are considered the most likely to influence the ecology of foraminifers under most circumstances. Ammonia aomoriensi was exposed to Cu(II) concentrations (0–0.32 µmol/L) under controlled conditions (25ºC, 35PSU and pH= 7.8). After a 23-day treatment, foraminifers exposed to 0.22 and 0.32 µmol/L concentrations exhibited reduced growth and morphological deformities in which the long axis of the chamber extended ventrally, increasing the height of the trochospire. The waters in Torrecillas lagoon show strong stratification, with hypoxic/anoxic (DO/L) and corrosive (pH< 7.4) conditions below 4 m depth. The presence of such strong gradients in very shallow water represents a dynamic chemical environment, with changes occurring on day-night cycles, tidal cycles, and especially with storm activity that induces mixing of otherwise highly stratified, very localized waters. Recognizing the potential for sequestered PTEs to be mobilized is essential insight for coastal management agencies that must assess the risks of existing PTEs during coastal engineering activities (e.g., dredge and fill activities) and major storm events.

Les estuaires sont des zones de transition entre les eaux fluviales et les océans soumis à de fortes contraintes d’origine anthropique, telles que la pollution chimique. Pourtant, les estuaires sont d’une importance écologique primordiale, et sont notamment des zones de nourricerie ou de reproduction pour de nombreuses espèces. Le Flet européen Platichthys flesus est un modèle souvent utilisé comme espèce sentinelle dans les estuaires. Le but de ces travaux est d’explorer les mécanismes de réponse du Flet européen à la contamination chimique, afin éventuellement d’identifier de nouveaux biomarqueurs. Il a donc été choisi de mener cette étude par une approche de protéomique par électrophorèse en deux dimensions. Les protéines différentiellement accumulées en réponse à la pollution ont été identifiées par MALDI TOF-TOF. Ces études par protéomique ont été complétées par des mesures ciblées de transcription de gènes. Tout d’abord, des flets juvéniles issus d’un élevage ont été contaminés expérimentalement avec deux doses d’un cocktail de HAP et PCB (concentration retrouvée dans la Seine, et 10 fois celle-ci). Après 29 jours de contamination, le métabolisme énergétique paraît dérégulé. Des protéines impliquées dans les défenses anti-oxydantes et la détoxification sont accumulées dans le foie des poissons contaminés. Les résultats nous ont conduit à poser l’hypothèse de l’implication de la BHMT dans un cycle aboutissant à la production de GSH, et qui pourrait donc participer à la détoxification ou aux défenses anti-oxydantes. Ensuite, les profils protéiques de foies de poissons issus de 3 estuaires de la Manche ont été comparés. Les profils protéiques des foies de poissons de la Seine et de la Tamar, 2 estuaires présentant des profils de contamination différents, se sont révélés différents des profils protéiques des foies des poissons de la Canche. Des différences moins marquées entre les profils protéiques des foies de poissons de la Seine et de la Tamar pourraient refléter les différences entre les contaminants présents dans ces estuaires. / Estuaries are important areas highly susceptible to anthropogenic degradations such as pollution. Estuarine species have to cope not only with environmental constraints inherent to estuarine habitats, but also with the presence of contaminants, the occurrence of hypoxic events or with waters warming. The European flounder Platichthys flesus is considered as a sentinel species in estuarine water quality monitoring. This study investigates the molecular mechanisms allowing the European flounder to cope with these different stress factors, both in environmental and experimental conditions, in order to eventually identify potential biomarkers of the response to contamination. A proteomic approach using 2-dimensional electrophoresis followed by MALDI TOF-TOF mass spectrometry allowed us to identify differentially expressed proteins in flounder livers, and then to better understand the mechanisms and a pathway implied in the response of flounder to environmental constraints. These observations were completed by targeted markers analyses by qPCR and enzymatic activity measurements. First, farm flounders were experimentally contaminated with two concentrations of PAH/PCB cocktails (concentrations found in the Seine and ten times this concentration). After 29 days of contamination, energetic metabolism was deregulated in contaminated flounder livers. Proteins involved in anti-oxidative defenses and detoxification were also accumulated. We suggest that BHMT could be implied in a pathway leading to the production of GSH allowing detoxification and anti-oxidative defense. Then, Flounders were fished in contrasted estuaries along the French Atlantic coast. The liver proteomic patterns of Flounders from the Seine (France) and the Tamar (UK), two estuaries displaying different contamination patterns, and from the Canche (France), were compared to characterize the proteins differentially expressed between these sites. Proteome profiles reflected the contamination patterns in each estuary.

Diel dissolved oxygen (DO) data were used to characterize seasonal, inter-annual, and longitudinal variation in production and respiration for the James River Estuary. Two computational methods (Bayesian and bookkeeping) were applied to these data to determine whether inferences regarding DO metabolism are sensitive to methodology. Net metabolism was sensitive to methodology as Bayesian results indicated net heterotrophy (production < respiration) while bookkeeping results indicated net autotrophy (production > respiration). Differences in net metabolism among the methods was due to low seasonal variation in respiration using the Bayesian method, whereas bookkeeping results showed a strong correlation between production and respiration. Bayesian results suggest a dependence on allochthonous organic matter (OM) whereas bookkeeping results suggest that metabolism is dependent on autochthonous OM. This study highlights the importance in considering the method used to derive metabolic estimates as it can impact the assessment of trophic status and sources of OM supporting an estuary.